The choice of resin-bound ligand affects the structure and immunogenicity of column-purified human papillomavirus type 16 virus-like particles

Cell growth conditions and purification methods are important in determining biopharmaceutical activity. However, in studies aimed at manufacturing virus-like particles (VLPs) for the purpose of creating a prophylactic vaccine and antigen for human papillomavirus (HPV), the effects of the presence of a resin-bound ligand during purification have never been investigated. In this study, we compared the structural integrity and immunogenicity of two kinds of VLPs derived from HPV type 16 (HPV16 VLPs): one VLP was purified by heparin chromatography (hHPV16 VLP) and the other by cation-exchange chromatography (cHPV16 VLP). The reactivity of anti-HPV16 neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (H16.V5 and H16.E70) towards hHPV16 VLP were significantly higher than the observed cHPV16 VLP reactivities, implying that hHPV16 VLP possesses a greater number of neutralizing epitopes and has a greater potential to elicit anti-HPV16 neutralizing antibodies. After the application of heparin chromatography, HPV16 VLP has a higher affinity for H16.V5 and H16.E70. This result indicates that heparin chromatography is valuable in selecting functional HPV16 VLPs. In regard to VLP immunogenicity, the anti-HPV16 L1 IgG and neutralizing antibody levels elicited by immunizations of mice with hHPV16 VLPs were higher than those elicited by cHPV16 VLP with and without adjuvant. Therefore, the ability of hHPV16 VLP to elicit humoral immune responses was superior to that of cHPV16 VLP. We conclude that the specific chromatographic technique employed for the purification of HPV16 VLPs is an important factor in determining the structural characteristics and immunogenicity of column-purified VLPs.     

Enhancement of vaccine potency by fusing modified LTK63 into human papillomavirus type 16 chimeric virus-like particles

To enhance the immunogenicity of human papillomavirus 16 (HPV 16) virus-like particles (VLPs), the modified adjuvant, mLTK63, was fused to the C-terminus of HPV 16 L2 protein. Coexpression of HPV 16 L1 and L2-mLTK63 proteins in insect cells led to the efficient assembly of HPV 16 L1/L2-mLTK63 chimeric VLPs (cVLPs), which combined the antigen and adjuvant as a unit. Compared with HPV 16 L1/L2 VLPs, the HPV 16 L1/L2-mLTK63 cVLPs had similar structural biology characteristics and binding activities with the cell surface receptors and HPV 16-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibodies. Intramuscular immunization of BALB/c mice with the HPV 16 L1/L2-mLTK63 cVLPs could induce higher titers of HPV 16-specific long-lasting neutralizing serum antibodies and stronger splenocyte proliferation, Th1- and Th2-type cytokines and CD4(+) Th responses than HPV 16 L1/L2 VLPs. The results suggested that it is possible to enhance the immunogenicity of HPV VLP vaccines via a strategy of fusing effective adjuvant protein into cVLPs.     

VLPs Displaying a Single L2 Epitope Induce Broadly Cross-Neutralizing Antibodies against Human Papillomavirus

Background

Virus-like Particles (VLPs) display can be used to increase the immunogenicity of heterologous antigens. Here, we report the use of a bacteriophage MS2-based VLP display platform to develop a monovalent vaccine targeting a broadly neutralizing epitope in the minor capsid protein human papillomavirus (HPV) that provides broad protection from diverse HPV types in a mouse pseudovirus infection model.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Peptides spanning a previously described cross-neutralizing epitope from HPV type 16 were genetically inserted at the N-terminus of MS2 bacteriophage coat protein. Three of the four recombinant L2-coat proteins assembled into VLPs. L2-VLPs elicited high-titer anti-L2 antibodies in mice, similar to recombinant VLPs that we had previously made in which the L2 peptide was displayed on a surface-exposed loop on VLPs of a related bacteriophage, PP7. Somewhat surprisingly, L2-MS2 VLPs elicited antibodies that were much more broadly cross-reactive with L2 peptides from diverse HPV isolates than L2-PP7 VLPs. Similarly, mice immunized with L2-MS2 VLPs were protected from genital and cutaneous infection by highly diverse HPV pseudovirus types.

Conclusion/Significance

We show that peptides can be displayed in a highly immunogenic fashion at the N-terminus of MS2 coat protein VLPs. A VLP-based vaccine targeting HPV L2 elicits broadly cross-reactive and cross-protective antibodies to heterologous HPV types. L2-VLPs could serve as the basis of a broadly protective second generation HPV vaccine.     

大肠杆菌来源的人乳头瘤病毒11型病毒样颗粒的制备及其免疫原性

摘要：【目的】 利用大肠杆菌表达系统制备人乳头瘤病毒11型病毒样颗粒（HPV11 VLPs）,并对其免疫原性和所诱导中和抗体的型交叉反应性进行研究。 【方法】 在大肠杆菌ER2566中非融合表达HPV11-L1蛋白,并通过离子交换层析,疏水相互作用层析其进行纯化。纯化后的HPV11-L1经体外组装形成病毒样颗粒,通过动态光散射,透射电镜检测其形态,并通过多种HPV型别假病毒中和实验评价HPV11 VLPs的免疫原性及型交叉反应性。 【结果】 HPV11-L1蛋白在大肠杆菌中可以以可溶形式表达。经过硫酸铵沉     

Purification and immunogenicity study of human papillomavirus 58 virus-like particles expressed in Pichia pastoris

Two human papillomavirus (HPV) prophylactic vaccines are currently available in the market: Gardasil and Cervarix. These two vaccines work against tumor high-risk subtypes HPV 16 and HPV 18. However, they do not include other high-risk subtypes such as HPV 58. Epidemiological research in China shows that HPV 58 is a prevalent high-risk subtype, second only to HPV 16 and HPV 18. Thus, for cervical cancer prevention in China, developing a vaccine against HPV 58 is necessary. In this study, HPV 58 virus-like particles (VLPs) were expressed in the Pichia pastoris, and subsequently purified through pretreatment and a three-step purification process consisting of strong cation exchange chromatography, size-exclusion chromatography, and hydroxyapatite chromatography. The highly purified HPV 58 VLPs were confirmed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, electron microscopy, dynamic laser scattering, and ultracentrifugation. The purified VLPs were used to immunize mice to test their ability to induce humoral immunity. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were performed on the sera of the immunized mice and significantly high anti-HPV 58 VLP antibody titers were observed. The immunogenicity study demonstrates that the purified HPV 58 VLPs are HPV vaccine candidates.     

Preclinical model to test human papillomavirus virus (HPV) capsid vaccines in vivo using infectious HPV/cottontail rabbit papillomavirus chimeric papillomavirus particles

A human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine consisting of virus-like particles (VLPs) was recently approved for human use. It is generally assumed that VLP vaccines protect by inducing type-specific neutralizing antibodies. Preclinical animal models cannot be used to test for protection against HPV infections due to species restriction. We developed a model using chimeric HPV capsid/cottontail rabbit papillomavirus (CRPV) genome particles to permit the direct testing of HPV VLP vaccines in rabbits. Animals vaccinated with CRPV, HPV type 16 (HPV-16), or HPV-11 VLPs were challenged with both homologous (CRPV capsid) and chimeric (HPV-16 capsid) particles. Strong type-specific protection was observed, demonstrating the potential application of this approach.     

Papillomavirus capsid mutation to escape dendritic cell-dependent innate immunity in cervical cancer

Infection with oncogenic human papillomaviruses (HPVs), typified by HPV type 16 (HPV16), is a necessary cause of cervical cancer. Prophylactic vaccination with HPV16 L1 virus-like particles (VLPs) provides immunity. HPV16 VLPs activate dendritic cells and a potent neutralizing immunoglobulin G (IgG) response, yet many cervical cancer patients fail to generate detectable VLP-specific IgG. Therefore, we examined the role of the innate recognition of HPV16 L1 in VLP-induced immune responses and its evasion during carcinogenesis. Nonconservative mutations within HPV16 L1 have been described in isolates from cervical cancer and its precursor, high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). We determined the effect of mutations in L1 upon in vitro self-assembly into VLPs and their influence upon the induction of innate and adaptive immune responses in mice. Several nonconservative mutations in HPV16 L1 isolated from high-grade CIN or cervical carcinoma prevent self-assembly of L1 VLPs. Intact VLPs, but not assembly-defective L1, activate dendritic cells to produce proinflammatory factors, such as alpha interferon, that play a critical role in inducing adaptive immunity. Indeed, effective induction of L1-specific IgG1 and IgG2a was dependent upon intact VLP structure. Dendritic cell activation and production of virus-specific neutralizing IgG by VLPs requires MyD88-dependent signaling, although the L1 structure that initiates MyD88-mediated signaling is distinct from the neutralizing epitopes. We conclude that innate recognition of the intact L1 VLP structure via MyD88 is critical in the induction of high-titer neutralizing IgG. Tumor progression is associated with genetic instability and L1 mutants. Selection for assembly-deficient L1 mutations suggests the evasion of MyD88-dependent immune control during cervical carcinogenesis.     

Improved efficiency of a Salmonella-based vaccine against human papillomavirus type 16 virus-like particles achieved by using a codon-optimized version of L1

Cervical cancer results from cervical infection by human papillomaviruses (HPVs), especially HPV16. An effective vaccine against these HPVs is expected to have a dramatic impact on the incidence of this cancer and its precursor lesions. The leading candidate, a subunit prophylactic HPV virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine, can protect women from HPV infection. An alternative improved vaccine that avoids parenteral injection, that is efficient with a single dose, and that induces mucosal immunity might greatly facilitate vaccine implementation in different settings. In this study, we have constructed a new generation of recombinant Salmonella organisms that assemble HPV16 VLPs and induce high titers of neutralizing antibodies in mice after a single nasal or oral immunization with live bacteria. This was achieved through the expression of a HPV16 L1 capsid gene whose codon usage was optimized to fit with the most frequently used codons in Salmonella. Interestingly, the high immunogenicity of the new recombinant bacteria did not correlate with an increased expression of L1 VLPs but with a greater stability of the L1-expressing plasmid in vitro and in vivo in absence of antibiotic selection. Anti-HPV16 humoral and neutralizing responses were also observed with different Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium strains whose attenuating deletions have already been shown to be safe after oral vaccination of humans. Thus, our findings are a promising improvement toward a vaccine strain that could be tested in human volunteers.     

Crystal structures of four types of human papillomavirus L1 capsid proteins: understanding the specificity of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are known etiologic agents of cervical cancer. Vaccines that contain virus-like particles (VLPs) made of L1 capsid protein from several high risk HPV types have proven to be effective against HPV infections. Raising high levels of neutralizing antibodies against each HPV type is believed to be the primary mechanism of protection, gained by vaccination. Antibodies elicited by a particular HPV type are highly specific to that particular HPV type and show little or no cross-reactivity between HPV types. With an intention to understand the interplay between the L1 structure of different HPV types and the type specificity of neutralizing antibodies, we have prepared the L1 pentamers of four different HPV types, HPV11, HPV16, HPV18, and HPV35. The pentamers only bind the type-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (NmAbs) that are raised against the VLP of the corresponding HPV type, implying that the surface loop structures of the pentamers from each type are distinctive and functionally active as VLPs in terms of antibody binding. We have determined the crystal structures of all four L1 pentamers, and their comparisons revealed characteristic conformational differences of the surface loops that contain the known epitopes for the NmAbs. On the basis of these distinct surface loop structures, we have provided a molecular explanation for the type specificity of NmAbs against HPV infection.     

Identification of human papillomavirus type 16 L1 surface loops required for neutralization by human sera

The variable surface loops on human papillomavirus (HPV) virions required for type-specific neutralization by human sera remain poorly defined. To determine which loops are required for neutralization, a series of hybrid virus-like particles (VLPs) were used to adsorb neutralizing activity from HPV type 16 (HPV16)-reactive human sera before being tested in an HPV16 pseudovirion neutralization assay. The hybrid VLPs used were composed of L1 sequences of either HPV16 or HPV31, on which one or two regions were replaced with homologous sequences from the other type. The regions chosen for substitution were the five known loops that form surface epitopes recognized by monoclonal antibodies and two additional variable regions between residues 400 and 450. Pretreatment of human sera, previously found to react to HPV16 VLPs in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, with wild-type HPV16 VLPs and hybrid VLPs that retained the neutralizing epitopes reduced or eliminated the ability of sera to inhibit pseudovirus infection in vitro. Surprisingly, substitution of a single loop often ablated the ability of VLPs to adsorb neutralizing antibodies from human sera. However, for all sera tested, multiple surface loops were found to be important for neutralizing activity. Three regions, defined by loops DE, FG, and HI, were most frequently identified as being essential for binding by neutralizing antibodies. These observations are consistent with the existence of multiple neutralizing epitopes on the HPV virion surface.     

Generation and neutralization of pseudovirions of human papillomavirus type 33.

Since human papillomaviruses (HPV) cannot be propagated in cell culture, the generation of infectious virions in vitro is a highly desirable goal. Here we report that pseudovirions can be generated by the assembly of virus-like particles (VLPs) in COS-7 cells containing multiple copies of a marker plasmid. Using recombinant vaccinia viruses, we have obtained spherical VLPs of HPV type 33 (HPV-33) which fractionate into heavy and light VLPs in cesium chloride density gradients. VLPs in the heavy fraction (1.31 g/cm3) carry the plasmid in DNase-resistant form and are capable of transferring the genetic marker located on the plasmid to COS-7 cells in a DNase-resistant way (pseudoinfection). The minor capsid protein L2 is not required for encapsidation but is essential for efficient pseudoinfection. Antiserum to HPV-33 VLPs inhibits VLP-mediated DNA transfer with high efficiency. Antisera to VLPs of HPV-18 and HPV-16 are not neutralizing, although the HPV-16 antiserum exhibited some cross-reactivity with HPV-33 VLPs in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In a cell binding assay, the titer of the HPV-33 VLP antiserum was 1:200 compared to the neutralization titer of 1:10(5). This indicates that neutralization is essentially due to the inhibition of cellular processes after VLP binding to cells. The encapsidation of marker plasmids into VLPs provides a sensitive and fast assay for the evaluation of neutralizing potentials of antisera against papillomavirus infections.     

Trachea,lung, and tracheobronchial lymph nodes are the major sites where antigen-presenting cells are detected after nasal vaccination of mice with human papillomavirus type 16 virus-like particles

Vaccination by the nasal route has been successfully used for the induction of immune responses. Either the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT), the bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue, or lung dendritic cells have been mainly involved. Following nasal vaccination of mice with human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) virus-like-particles (VLPs), we have previously shown that interaction of the antigen with the lower respiratory tract was necessary to induce high titers of neutralizing antibodies in genital secretions. However, following a parenteral priming, nasal vaccination with HPV16 VLPs did not require interaction with the lung to induce a mucosal immune response. To evaluate the contribution of the upper and lower respiratory tissues and associated lymph nodes (LN) in the induction of humoral responses against HPV16 VLPs after nasal vaccination, we localized the immune inductive sites and identified the antigen-presenting cells involved using a specific CD4(+) T-cell hybridoma. Our results show that the trachea, the lung, and the tracheobronchial LN were the major sites responsible for the induction of the immune response against HPV16 VLP, while the NALT only played a minor role. Altogether, our data suggest that vaccination strategies aiming to induce efficient immune responses against HPV16 VLP in the female genital tract should target the lower respiratory tract.     

A pan-HPV vaccine based on bacteriophage PP7 VLPs displaying broadly cross-neutralizing epitopes from the HPV minor capsid protein, L2

Background

Current human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines that are based on virus-like particles (VLPs) of the major capsid protein L1 largely elicit HPV type-specific antibody responses. In contrast, immunization with the HPV minor capsid protein L2 elicits antibodies that are broadly cross-neutralizing, suggesting that a vaccine targeting L2 could provide more comprehensive protection against infection by diverse HPV types. However, L2-based immunogens typically elicit much lower neutralizing antibody titers than L1 VLPs. We previously showed that a conserved broadly neutralizing epitope near the N-terminus of L2 is highly immunogenic when displayed on the surface of VLPs derived from the bacteriophage PP7. Here, we report the development of a panel of PP7 VLP-based vaccines targeting L2 that protect mice from infection with carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic HPV types that infect the genital tract and skin.

Methodology/Principal Findings

L2 peptides from eight different HPV types were displayed on the surface of PP7 bacteriophage VLPs. These recombinant L2 VLPs, both individually and in combination, elicited high-titer anti-L2 IgG serum antibodies. Immunized mice were protected from high dose infection with HPV pseudovirus (PsV) encapsidating a luciferase reporter. Mice immunized with 16L2 PP7 VLPs or 18L2 PP7 VLPs were nearly completely protected from both PsV16 and PsV18 challenge. Mice immunized with the mixture of eight L2 VLPs were strongly protected from genital challenge with PsVs representing eight diverse HPV types and cutaneous challenge with HPV5 PsV.

Conclusion/Significance

VLP-display of a cross-neutralizing HPV L2 epitope is an effective approach for inducing high-titer protective neutralizing antibodies and is capable of offering protection from a spectrum of HPVs associated with cervical cancer as well as genital and cutaneous warts.     

Nasal Immunization of Mice with Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Virus-Like Particles Elicits Neutralizing Antibodies in Mucosal Secretions

To specifically induce a mucosal antibody response to purified human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) virus-like particles (VLP), we immunized female BALB/c mice orally, intranasally, and/or parenterally and evaluated cholera toxin (CT) as a mucosal adjuvant. Anti-HPV16 VLP immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA titers in serum, saliva, and genital secretions were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Systemic immunizations alone induced HPV16 VLP-specific IgG in serum and, to a lesser extent, in genital secretions but no secretory IgA. Oral immunization, even in the presence of CT, was inefficient. However, three nasal immunizations with 5 μg of VLP given at weekly intervals to anesthetized mice induced high (>10⁴) and long-lasting (>15 weeks) titers of anti-HPV16 VLP antibodies in all samples, including IgA and IgG in saliva and genital secretions. CT enhanced the VLP-specific antibody response 10-fold in serum and to a lesser extent in saliva and genital secretions. Nasal immunization of conscious mice compared to anesthetized mice was inefficient and correlated with the absence of uptake of a marker into the lung. However, a 1-μg VLP systemic priming followed by two 5-μg VLP intranasal boosts in conscious mice induced both HPV16 VLP-specific IgG and IgA in secretions, although the titers were lower than in anesthetized mice given three intranasal immunizations. Antibodies in serum, saliva, and genital secretions of immunized mice were strongly neutralizing in vitro (50% neutralization with ELISA titers of 65 to 125). The mucosal and systemic/mucosal HPV16 VLP immunization protocols that induced significant titers of neutralizing IgG and secretory IgA in mucosal secretions in mice may be relevant to genital HPV VLP-based human vaccine trials.     

人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）58型中和单克隆抗体的制备及初步应用

人乳头瘤病毒（human papillomavirus,HPV）58型是宫颈癌的主要诱因之一. HPV58在亚洲地区宫颈癌组织中的检出率仅次于HPV16/18. HPV58中和单克隆抗体可用于 HPV病毒样颗粒（virus-like particle,VLP）疫苗的研究,并为病毒感染入侵机制的 研究提供实验材料. 本研究采用HPV58 L1 VLP免疫BALB/c小鼠,取其脾细胞进行杂交瘤 细胞的制备,通过VLP-ELISA和假病毒中和实验筛选杂交瘤细胞株;经rProtein A纯化 阳性杂交瘤细胞培养上清获得单抗;采用ELISA测定型别特异性中和单抗的亲和力,采用相加实验及变性VLP-ELISA分析单抗识别表位的性质;选取高亲和力单抗建立定量分 析HPV58 L1 VLP的ELISA方法. 获得了2株HPV58特异性中和单抗XM-22和XM-23,亲和常数分别为2.7×107 mol-1·L和1.9×106 mol-1·L,二者识别表位可能不同. 同时获得2株具有交叉中和活性的单抗XM-21和XM-24,除可较高水平中和HPV58外,还可分别交叉 中和亲缘关系较远的HPV18和HPV6. 以XM-22建立的ELISA方法定量分析HPV58 L1 VLP的检测范围为0.05 μg/mL~0.40 μg/mL. 本研究建立的ELISA方法可用于HPV58 L1 VLP疫苗生产的质量控制研究,获得的4株具有不同特点的中和单抗可用于HPV58感染入侵机制 的研究.     

Assembly and immunogenicity of baculovirus-derived infectious bronchitis virus–like particles carrying membrane,envelope and the recombinant spike proteins

Objective

To assemble infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)-like particles bearing the recombinant spike protein and investigate the humoral immune responses in chickens.

Results

IBV virus-like particles (VLPs) were generated through the co-infection with three recombinant baculoviruses separately encoding M, E or the recombinant S genes. The recombinant S protein was sufficiently flexible to retain the ability to self-assemble into VLPs. The size and morphology of the VLPs were similar to authentic IBV particles. In addition, the immunogenicity of IBV VLPs had been investigated. The results demonstrated that the efficiency of the newly generated VLPs was comparable to that of the inactivated M41 viruses in eliciting IBV-specific antibodies and neutralizing antibodies in chickens via subcutaneous inoculation.

Conclusions

This work provides basic information for the mechanism of IBV VLP formation and develops a platform for further designing IBV VLP-based vaccines against IBV or other viruses.

     

人乳头瘤病毒16型假病毒中和实验的建立和初步应用

探讨了应用多质粒磷酸钙共转染方法在293FT细胞中生产HPV16(human papillomavirus type 16)假病毒。蛋白印迹检测显示在转染后细胞的裂解上清中具有很好的L1蛋白活性,通过透射电镜可观察到形态与天然病毒粒子相似的假病毒颗粒。对293FT细胞的感染实验显示,该假病毒可有效将EGFP报告质粒导入靶细胞中进行表达,经测定其滴度约为2×107TU/mL。通过与4株HPV16对照单抗的中和实验证明该假病毒可有效应用于中和实验。应用该方法从18株抗HPV16L1的单克隆抗体中鉴定获得了2株中和单抗3D10、PD1。所建立的HPV16假病毒生产和中和实验方法具有快速高效、低成本和易于检测的优点,适于进行较大规模应用,为快速准确鉴定HPV16中和单抗和候选疫苗的免疫保护效果提供了有效手段。     

HPV 58 L1改造基因的表达及其VLP产物抗血清制备

高危型人乳头瘤病毒（human papillomavirus, HPV）慢性持续性感染是诱发宫颈癌的主要病因．体外表达的HPV主要衣壳蛋白（L1）可自组装成病毒样颗粒（virus-like particle, VLP）,免疫后可诱导产生型别特异性中和抗体,有效保护机体免受同型病毒的感染,因此可望预防病毒感染及感染相关的宫颈癌等病变．HPV 58是诱发我国妇女宫颈癌的主要高危型病毒之一,目前尚无针对HPV 58的疫苗问世．本研究联合采用多种策略对HPV 58 L1野生型基因进行改造,获得HPV 58 L1改造基因,命名为HPV 58mL1,用杆状病毒 昆虫细胞表达系统进行HPV 58 mL1的表达,CsCl密度梯度离心法纯化获得HPV 58 mL1重组蛋白,电镜分析结果显示,重组蛋白形成直径约55 nm的VLP．皮下免疫新西兰兔和豚鼠,ELISA检测显示,免疫动物产生高滴度针对HPV 58 mL1 VLP的抗血清,免疫斑点印迹检测显示,抗血清是针对VLP表面表位的．本研究表达了均一性好的HPV 58 mL1 VLP,并获得两个种属的HPV 58 mL1 VLP抗血清,为进一步研究有效预防HPV 58感染的疫苗打下基础．     

Identification of a human papillomavirus type 16-specific epitope on the C-terminal arm of the major capsid protein L1

To characterize epitopes on human papillomavirus (HPV) virus-like particles (VLPs), a panel of mutated HPV-16 VLPs was created. Each mutated VLP had residues substituted from HPV-31 or HPV-52 L1 sequences to the HPV-16 L1 backbone. Mutations were created on the HPV-31 and -52 L1 proteins to determine if HPV-16 type-specific recognition could be transferred. Correct folding of the mutated proteins was verified by resistance to trypsin digestion and by binding to one or more conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies. Several of the antibodies tested were found to bind to regions already identified as being important for HPV VLP recognition (loops DE, EF, FG, and HI). Sequences at both ends of the long FG loop (amino acids 260 to 290) were required for both H16.V5 and H16.E70 reactivity. A new antibody-binding site was discovered on the C-terminal arm of L1 between positions 427 and 445. Recognition of these residues by the H16.U4 antibody suggests that this region is surface exposed and supports a recently proposed molecular model of HPV VLPs.     

Development of prophylactic HPV vaccines

Since several years it has been accepted that persistent infection with certain (so called-high risk: HR) types of Human papillomaviruses (HPV) represents a strong risk factor for cervical cancer. The most frequent HR HPV types 16 and 18 account for about 70% of this tumour, which is the second most frequent malignancy in women worldwide. Several studies in animal papillomavirus models revealed that protection against infection is conferred by neutralizing antibodies directed against conformational epitopes of the major structural protein L1. Such antibodies can most efficiently be induced by immunization with virus-like particles (VLP) that assemble spontaneously following expression of L1 in recombinant vectors. Large-scale production of HPV 16 and 18 VLPs proved to be successful facilitating, a few years ago, first clinical trials on safety and immunogenicity. In the meantime more than 25,000 women have been included into several efficacy trials which demonstrated protection against persistent infection with HPV 16 and 18 and against the development of precursor lesions to cervical cancer. Although the ultimate proof of success, i.e. reduction of cancer incidence still requires the immunization of large populations and many years of follow-up, the existing data are so persuasive that the responsible agencies in several countries permitted the licensing of the first HPV vaccine in 2006. Several questions such as the duration of protection, the need development of for post-exposure vaccination strategies and availability of such vaccine in low-budget countries are open and will be discussed.