Isozyme gene duplication in diploid and tetraploid potatoes

Summary Isozyme techniques allow the study of gene redundancy in different ploidy levels of potato (Solanum tuberosum). In tetraploid potatoes all isozyme loci are duplicated. No sign of structural or regulatory divergence was found, as is expected due to their tetrasomic inheritance patterns. In addition to this genetic redundancy, produced by a relatively recent polyploidization event, some additional redundancy was found for at least three enzymes even in diploid groups and species. These older duplicate genes show structural and regulatory divergence, indicating they appeared by a separate polyploidization event far in the past. Their common origin is still recognizable by both their expression in the same subcellular compartment and by the dimerizing ability of the isozymes they encode. To account for the present chromosome number x = 12 of the Solanaceae family, the most frequently found among the species, a hypothetical polyploidization event is proposed.     

Marker-assisted selection of diploid and tetraploid potatoes carryingRpi-phu1, a major gene for resistance toPhytophthora infestans

TheRpi-phu1 gene originates from an interspecific hybrid betweenSolanum stenotomum andS. phureja, and confers a high level of resistance toPhytophthora infestans (late blight) in potato. TheRpi-phu1 was introduced by crossing at the diploid level into theS. tuberosum gene pool and then transferred to the tetraploid level by means of2n gametes. Tetraploid lines carrying theRpi-phu1 were selected for further crosses. A molecular marker GP94, linked in mapping population 97-30 with theRpi-phu1 (6.4 cM), was applied to other unselected populations (2 diploid and 1 tetraploid), and was shown to be useful in marker-assisted selection (MAS) of the resistant individuals. GP94 was applied also in commercial breeding in 2 tetraploid populations. Although the marker allele of GP94, characteristic for theRpi-phu1 presence, was rare in theS. tuberosum gene pool, it seemed to be common in 2 other sources of resistance to late blight:S. ruizceballosii andS. kurtzianum.     

Organization,expression and evolution of a disease resistance gene cluster in soybean

PCR amplification was previously used to identify a cluster of resistance gene analogues (RGAs) on soybean linkage group J. Resistance to powdery mildew (Rmd-c), Phytophthora stem and root rot (Rps2), and an ineffective nodulation gene (Rj2) map within this cluster. BAC fingerprinting and RGA-specific primers were used to develop a contig of BAC clones spanning this region in cultivar "Williams 82" [rps2, Rmd (adult onset), rj2]. Two cDNAs with homology to the TIR/NBD/LRR family of R-genes have also been mapped to opposite ends of a BAC in the contig Gm_Isb001_091F11 (BAC 91F11). Sequence analyses of BAC 91F11 identified 16 different resistance-like gene (RLG) sequences with homology to the TIR/NBD/LRR family of disease resistance genes. Four of these RLGs represent two potentially novel classes of disease resistance genes: TIR/NBD domains fused inframe to a putative defense-related protein (NtPRp27-like) and TIR domains fused inframe to soybean calmodulin Ca(2+)-binding domains. RT-PCR analyses using gene-specific primers allowed us to monitor the expression of individual genes in different tissues and developmental stages. Three genes appeared to be constitutively expressed, while three were differentially expressed. Analyses of the R-genes within this BAC suggest that R-gene evolution in soybean is a complex and dynamic process.     

PCR Sampling of disease resistance-like sequences from a disease resistance gene cluster in soybean

Clusters of Resistance-like genes (RLGs) have been identified from a variety of plant species. In soybean, RLG-specific primers and BAC-fingerprinting were used to develop a contig of overlapping BACs for a cluster of RLGs on soybean linkage group J. The resistance genes Rps2 (Phytophthora stem and root rot) and Rmd-c (powdery mildew) and the ineffective nodulation gene Rj2 were previously mapped to this region of linkage group J. PCR hybridization was used to place two TIR/NBD/LRR cDNAs on overlapping BACs from this contig. Both of the cDNAs were present on BAC 34P7. Fingerprinting of this BAC suggested as many as twelve different RLGs were present. Given the high nucleotide identity shared between cDNAs LM6 and MG13 (>90%), direct sequencing of this region would be difficult. More sequence information was needed about the RLGs within this region before sequencing could be undertaken. By comparing the genomic sequences of cDNAs LM6 and MG13 we identified conserved regions from which oligonucleotide primers specific to BAC 34P7 RLGs could be designed. The nine primer pairs spanned the genomic sequence of LM6 and produced overlapping RLG products upon amplification of BAC 34P7. Amplification products from 12 different RLGs were identified. On average, nucleotide identity between RLG sequences was greater than 95%. Examination of RLG sequences also revealed evidence of additions, deletions and duplications within targeted regions of these genes. Using previously mapped cDNAs we were able to quickly and inexpensively access multiple RLGs within a single specific cluster.     

RFLP variation in diploid and tetraploid alfalfa

Summary Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a major forage crop throughout the world. Although alfalfa has many desirable traits, continued breeding is required to incorporate pest resistances and other traits. We conducted this study to determine the amount of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) variability present within and between diploid and tetraploid alfalfa populations, and whether or not this variability is sufficient for construction of an RFLP map. Diploid plants from M. sativa ssp. falcata, ssp. coerulea, and ssp. sativa and tetraploid spp. sativa cultivars Apollo, Florida 77, and Spredor 2 were included. A total of 19 cDNA clones was probed onto genomic Southern blots containing DNA digested by EcoRI, HindIII, or BamHI. Phylogenetic trees were produced, based on parsimony analysis of shared restriction fragments. Evidence for extensive gene duplication was found; most probes detected complex patterns of restriction fragments. Large amounts of variation are present within all diploid subspecies. M. sativa ssp. falcata plants formed clusters distinct from ssp. sativa or ssp. coerulea plants, which were not distinctly clustered. Some M. sativa ssp. falcata plants were more similar to the other groups than to other plants within ssp. falcata. Variation among tetraploid cultivars showed that Florida 77 and Apollo had more similarities than either showed with Spredor 2. All three cultivars showed large within-population variation, with Apollo being the most diverse and Spredor 2 the least. Based on these results, development of an RFLP map at the diploid level appears possible. Also, differentiation of cultivars, particularly ones of divergent origin, seems possible based on RFLP patterns.     

Duplicate gene expression in diploid and tetraploid loaches (Cypriniformes,Cobitidae)

Botia macracantha and B. modesta have been demonstrated to be tetraploid species on the basis of their karyotypes and on the basis of the expression of a number of isozymes encoded by duplicate loci. A rather low percentage of duplicate loci was detected by electrophoresis, compared to that for other tetraploid Cypriniformes. Several hypotheses have been advanced to account for the low levels of duplicate gene expression observed. Lastly, many of the duplicate loci have diverged to unique patterns of expressions in different tissues or different levels of activity within a single tissue.     

Desynapsis in diploid and tetraploid clones of ryegrass

Desynapsis is described in diploid and tetraploid plants of perennial ryegrass. The plants were derived by repeated cloning of a single mixoploid (2n=14 and 28) detected among colchicine-treated seedlings. The diploid and tetraploid clones varied in degree of desynapsis, chiasma number, and fertility. The variation among the clones was probably environmental. The progeny of the mixoploid parent included dipoids, tetraploids, and an aneuploid. One diploid and the aneuploid were desynaptic and originated perhaps by selfing. Apparently a single recessive gene determined desynapsis. The role of synaptic genes in controlling the chemical structure and function of nucleoprotein macromolecules is discussed.     

Hordein polymorphism in diploid and tetraploid Mediterranean populations of the Hordeum murinum L. complex

Polymorphism analyses of the hordeins, main storage proteins in barley, were conducted on 35 natural populations of Hordeum murinum s.l. from North Africa; this specific complex includes three subspecies with two ploidy levels: H. murinum subsp. glaucum (2n=2x=14), H. murinum subsp. leporinum and subsp. murinum (2n=4x=28). Twenty of these populations belong to the diploid subsp. glaucum, 14 other tetraploid populations belong to the subsp. leporinum. In addition, six populations of the tetraploid murinum were sampled in France: two along the Mediterranean coast and four in Brittany. The polymorphism observed in the electrophoretic patterns highlights strong correlations between bioclimatic features and di- and tetraploid taxa distribution. Moreover, the variation was not randomly distributed within the different ploidy levels, and is correlated with environmental factors. The ecological differentiation of the two main taxa, H. murinum subsp. leporinum and subsp. glaucum is clearly highlighted.     

Correspondence of trichome mutations in diploid and tetraploid cottons

Quantitative variation for leaf trichome number is observed within and among Gossypium species, varying from glabrous to densely pubescent phenotypes. Moreover, economically important cotton lint fibers are modified trichomes. Earlier studies have mapped quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting leaf pubescence in Gossypium using allotetraploids. In this study, we mapped genes responsible for leaf trichome density in a diploid A genome cross. We were able to map 3 QTLs affecting leaf pubescence based on trichome counts obtained from young leaves (YL) and mature leaves (ML). When the F(2) progeny were classified as pubescent versus glabrous, their ratio did not deviate significantly from a 3:1 model, suggesting that glabrousness is inherited in a simple Mendelian fashion. The glabrous mutation mapped to linkage group A3 at the position of major QTL YL1 and ML1 and appeared orthologous to the t1 locus of the allotetraploids. Interestingly, a fiber mutation, sma-4(ha), observed in the same F(2) population cosegregated with the glabrous marker, which indicates either close linkage or common genetic control of lint fiber and leaf trichomes. Studies of A genome diploids may help to clarify the genetic control of trichomes and fiber in both diploid and tetraploid cottons.     

Evolution and differential expression of a vertebrate vitellogenin gene cluster

Background  

The multiplicity or loss of the vitellogenin (vtg) gene family in vertebrates has been argued to have broad implications for the mode of reproduction (placental or non-placental), cleavage pattern (meroblastic or holoblastic) and character of the egg (pelagic or benthic). Earlier proposals for the existence of three forms of vertebrate vtgs present conflicting models for their origin and subsequent duplication.     

Gene dosage effects in human diploid and tetraploid fibroblasts

The effects of cell ploidy on the biochemical characteristics of cultured cells were compared using human diploid vs tetraploid fibroblasts isolated with a non-selective method. Their DNA replication was compared by thymidine incorporation, and DNA content by Feulgen staining and quantitative analysis. Their RNA and protein content, cell sizes and the specific activities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6-PGD) were assayed quantitatively. With the exception of RNA content, all other parameters demonstrated a 2-fold increase reflecting the increase in cell ploidy. These direct gene dosage effects on the genetic material and functional expression of the human genome were in contrast to previous observations in other species and validate the use of human intraspecific euploid hybrids for biochemical and genetic studies.     

Meiotic prophase in diploid and tetraploid strains ofAllomyces macrogynus

Summary Three-dimensional serial section reconstructions of meiotic prophase nuclei ofAllomyces macrogynus (Chytridiomycetes, Blastocladiales) have been carried out. Serial section reconstructions of pachytene nuclei have revealed that the fungus when grown at 23 °C is an autotetraploid and is a diploid when grown at 35 °C for at least 6 months or on a substrate containing para-fluorophenylalanine for 1–2 weeks.Studies of the duplication and migration of the centrioles during the first stages of prophase revealed the existence of four centrioles in the 23 °C strain after centriole duplication and two centrioles in the 35 °C strain after duplication. It is observed that a bivalent attaches to the nuclear envelope at a site where a centriole is situated. It is proposed that the presence of the four centrioles in the 23 °C strain is due to the fact that each bivalent is represented twice in the strain.     

Evolution of the aflatoxin gene cluster

WhyAspergillus species produce aflatoxin remains an unsolved question. In this report we suggest that evolution of the aflatoxin biosynthesis gene cluster has been a multistep process. More than 300 million years ago a primordial cluster of genes allowed production of anthraquinones that may have served as insect attractants to facilitate spore dispersal. Later adaptive evolutionary steps introduced genes into the cluster that encoded enzymes associated with fungal virulence. These genes may have allowed the otherwise saprophytic fungi to be better able to colonize living plants. Later, genes for production of aflatoxins B1 and G1 were added to the basal cluster. Loss of the ability to produce aflatoxin G1 occurred with the divergence ofA. flavus, a species that, perhaps, was more successful than its ancestors at colonizing plants. This logical progression in evolutionary development of the aflatoxin biosynthetic cluster fits the phylogenetic data as well as known chemical reactivity of the initially formed anthraquinone polyketide metabolites.     

Genetic and physical mapping inBrassica diploid species of a gene cluster defined inArabidopsis thaliana

We report the genetic and physical analysis by pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) in threeBrassica diploid genomes for a cluster of five genes characterized in a selected segment of 15 kb on chromosome 3 ofArabidopsis thaliana, encoding aBradyrhizobium CycJ homologue (At1), a rat p67 translation factor homologue (At2), an Em-like (early methionine) protein (At3), chlorophyll synthase (At4) and a yeast Sac1 homologue (A5). TheArabidopsis gene array was found to be conserved on a single linkage group in each of theBrassica genomes. However, partial complexes were found to be duplicated in other chromosome segments on the same or other linkage groups. Some of the At genes, which could not be genetically mapped because of lack of polymorphism, were assigned to their respective linkage groups by physical mapping. The presence of multiple copies of theA. thaliana gene cluster in the threeBrassica genomes further establishes their complex nature, which results from extensive duplication and chromosomal rearrangement. In general, genetic distances between the At genes agreed with values expected for the physical distances determined inBrassica.     

Differential meiotic behaviour of diploid and tetraploid cells in a partially asynaptic mutant

A partially asynaptic individual of the grasshopperEuchorthippus pulvinatus (2n = 16 + X) was analysed at meiosis, using a Giemsa C-banding technique. Long chromosomes formed univalents less frequently than did medium and short ones. Homologues which succeeded in forming bivalents showed reduced chiasma frequency, the long chromosomes being affected by most. Changes in chiasma distribution were also observed. The presence of univalents at metaphase I seems to affect the function of the spindle, since most cells at the second division were unreduced. Cytokinesis was also subsequently suppressed in a great number of these products of restitution, resulting in the formation of diploid and tetraploid spermatids. Fifteen tetraploid metaphase I cells were also found in which pairing level and chiasma frequency were almost twice the average value in normal diploid individuals. The nature of this mutant is discussed.     

A comparison of mutation induction in diploid and tetraploid rice

Summary A comparative assessment of the frequency and spectrum of chlorophyll mutations in the M ₂ and M ₃ of three diploids and one tetraploid of rice after X-irradiation was made. As well as a linear relationship of the frequency of mutations with the dose of mutagen, a saturation effect was also evident. Among the three diploids, the maximum frequency of mutations was observed in T. N. 1, followed by G. E. B. 24 and A. S. D. 8. The diploid of G. E. B. 24 showed a higher frequency of mutations than the tetraploid when measured on the M₁ plant basis only. The diploids showed a higher rate of mutations in the M ₂ than in the M₃.There was no relationship between the frequency of different types of chlorophyll mutations and the dose of X-rays. Albina, occurred in greater proportion than the other types of mutations in the diploids as well as in the tetraploid. The diploid showed a wider spectrum in the M ₂, whereas the tetraploid recorded the maximum types of mutations in the M ₃. Striking differences in the spectrum and the relative frequency of each type were observed among the three diploids and also between the diploid G. E. B. 24 and its tetraploid.The frequency and spectrum of induced mutations in the diploid and autotetraploid provided an insight into the genetic behaviour of the diploid and autotetraploid of G. E. B. 24, indicating that the genetics of diploidisation of the existing diploid rice may give evidence on the nature of the evolutionary pathway.