Energetic cost of foraging in free-diving emperor penguins.

Hypothesizing that emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) would have higher daily energy expenditures when foraging for their food than when being hand-fed and that the increased expenditure could represent their foraging cost, we measured field metabolic rates (FMR; using doubly labeled water) over 4-d periods when 10 penguins either foraged under sea ice or were not allowed to dive but were fed fish by hand. Surprisingly, penguins did not have higher rates of energy expenditure when they dove and captured their own food than when they did not forage but were given food. Analysis of time-activity and energy budgets indicated that FMR was about 1.7 x BMR (basal metabolic rate) during the 12 h d(-1) that penguins were lying on sea ice. During the remaining 12 h d(-1), which we termed their "foraging period" of the day, the birds were alert and active (standing, preening, walking, and either free diving or being hand-fed), and their FMR was about 4.1 x BMR. This is the lowest cost of foraging estimated to date among the eight penguin species studied. The calculated aerobic diving limit (ADL(C)), determined with the foraging period metabolic rate of 4.1 x BMR and known O(2) stores, was only 2.6 min, which is far less than the 6-min ADL previously measured with postdive lactate analyses in emperors diving under similar conditions. This indicates that calculating ADL(C) from an at-sea or foraging-period metabolic rate in penguins is not appropriate. The relatively low foraging cost for emperor penguins contributes to their relatively low total daily FMR (2.9 x BMR). The allometric relationship for FMR in eight penguin species, including the smallest and largest living representatives, is kJ d(-1)=1,185 kg(0.705).     

Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Aspergilli are widely distributed in nature and there is abundant opportunity to acquire infection. The fungus is usually only locally invasive in healthy tissues. Its culture from sputum on one occasion may have no significance. Its growth in the bronchial tree of asthmatics may produce sensitization with aggravation of the asthma and bronchial plugging. Multiplication in dead or damaged lung tissue such as infarcts is not uncommon. The fungus may also colonize pre-existing lung cavities, especially those remaining after treatment of tuberculosis. The ball of fungus produces a characteristic radiological picture, particularly on tomograms, which is usually sufficient to make the diagnosis. Hemoptysis is common. Inaction may be preferable to excision, especially in a patient with impaired lung function. Seven cases have been described to illustrate some of the features and natural history of the condition. The mounting number of sterile cavities left in lungs has increased the number of mycetomas which have developed.     

Long-term fasting and re-feeding in penguins

Spontaneous fasting during reproduction (sometimes with a full stomach) and moult is a major characteristic of the annual cycle of penguins. Long-term fasting (up to four months in male emperor penguins) is anticipated by the accumulation of fat (incubation fast) and of fat and protein (moult fast). During most of the incubation fast, birds rely almost entirely on lipids as an energy source, body proteins being spared. However, below a critical (but non-total) fat store depletion, marked behavioural, metabolic, and endocrine changes occur. Spontaneous locomotor activity increases and the egg is transitorily left unincubated for increasingly long periods, until its definitive abandon and the bird departs to re-feed at sea. These changes are thought to be activated by an endogenous re-feeding signal triggered before lethal energy depletion. An increase in body protein catabolism in the face of a reduction in lipid availability and utilisation, and an increase in circulating corticosterone vs. a decrease in plasma prolactin, are likely to be major metabolic and hormonal components of this signal. The survival and rapid restoration of energy stores in birds having departed to re-feed at a stage of near total lipid depletion demonstrates the effectiveness of the re-feeding signal. Penguins, and possibly other seabirds, are therefore appropriate animal models for understanding the long-term interactions between body energy reserves and fasting, breeding and feeding physiology and behaviour.     

Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, a syndrome associated with asthma, manifests with transient pulmonary infiltrates and eosinophilia and can progress to severe proximal bronchiectasis, bronchocentric granulomatosis and pulmonary fibrosis. Early recognition and treatment should favorably influence these complications. Use of the precipitins test with Aspergillus antigens as a screening procedure has identified 99 possible cases in California over a 50-month period. At least 44 cases have been confirmed; and demographic analysis shows that a preponderance of them involved patients less than 35 years old, occurred in farming and rural communities and were discovered in the months of September through February.     

Pygoscelid penguins in a swim canal

Summary In Antarctica, we investigated the energy consumption of Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae), Gentoo (P. papua) and Chinstrap (P. antarctica) penguins while resting in the water (8.4 W-kg^–1) and swimming underwater at various speeds, using a 21m long canal filled with sea-water at 4°C in conjunction with respirometry. The birds swam at will and consumed 15.7, 16.1 and 10 W·kg^–1 at the speed where cost of transport was minimal (2.1, 2.3 and 2.5 m·s^–1 in Adélie, Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins, respectively). Thermal conductance in pygoscelid penguins was 3.3 W·°C^–1. m^–2 and energy expenditure (P_i, W·kg^–1) while resting in the water is given by P_j = -0.3 t_a+9.6, where t_a is water temperature in °C. During the breeding season, pygoscelid penguins spend 25–40% of their daily energy expenditure while foraging at sea. The importance of accurate estimates of at-sea activity and energy consumption is discussed.