脑发育疾病及发病机制

大脑发育是一个极其复杂又被精确调控的过程,主要包括神经前体细胞增殖和分化、神经元迁移和形态发生(包括轴、树突发育)、突触形成与修剪、轴突髓鞘化、神经网络的形成与重塑等过程,最终形成功能完善的神经系统。其中的任何过程出现问题都有可能导致大脑发育异常,造成大脑功能障碍,即脑发育疾病。儿童脑发育疾病在医疗总负担中占比最高,因此被广泛关注。脑发育疾病通常被划分为两类:一类以大脑形态结构异常为指标,即大脑皮层发育畸形(malformation of cortical development, MCD);另一类以大脑功能障碍为指标,即神经精神疾病(neuropsychopathy)。大脑皮层发育畸形中的小颅畸形(microcephaly)和神经精神疾病中的孤独症谱系障碍(autism spectrum disorder,ASD)这两种疾病具有许多共同之处,例如小颅畸形致病基因的突变高频地出现在ASD病人中。本文针对这两类具有代表性的脑发育疾病,从症状、病因、机制和相关基因等方面展开介绍,以期为疾病的基础研究和治疗提供理论指导。     

Reelin信号通路在大脑新皮质形成中的作用

人类大脑皮层发育过程中,大量神经细胞从靠近脑室的增殖区产生并向软脑膜方向迁移,最终形成与人类许多高级功能相关的6层大脑新皮质结构,Reelin-Dab1信号通路在神经细胞迁移中起到了关键的作用。Reelin结合于迁移细胞膜上的极低密度脂蛋白受体(very lowlipoprotein recep-tor,VLDLR)和载脂蛋白E受体2(apolipoprotein E receptor2,ApoER2),磷酸化胞浆内的衔接蛋白disabled1(Dab1),继而与下游信号分子如细胞骨架蛋白等相互作用,指导皮层神经元的正确迁移和定位。本篇综述讨论了Reelin-Dab1信号通路在人类新皮质形成过程中的作用及近几年的研究新进展。     

基因组学:揭秘人类特有遗传变异对大脑皮层进化与发育的影响

大脑皮层是人类最高级的神经中枢,控制着人类区别于其他生物的认知能力,其结构与功能的高度复杂性起源于人类特有的遗传变异。应用基因组学技术,大脑皮层发育和进化的分子机制已经被逐步揭示。本文概述了基因组学技术如何运用于研究人类特有的遗传变异对大脑皮层发育与进化的影响,涉及采取基因组学方法研究人类和黑猩猩等其他哺乳类动物大脑皮层的基因表达差异以及重要的非编码调控序列—人类加速进化区(Human accelerated regions,HARs)在大脑发育过程中扮演的角色,并讨论了未来人类特有遗传变异在神经生物学领域的研究趋势。     

Bmal1对小鼠胚胎期皮层神经元放射状迁移和轴突投射的影响

大脑皮层的发育是脑结构形成与功能建立的重要基础,在此过程中,皮层神经元放射状迁移及胼胝体区的轴突投射是必不可少的关键环节,该环节受基因转录的调控,但相关的分子机制目前仍不明确。转录因子BMAL1 (brain and muscle Arnt-like protein1)是体内重要的生物钟节律因子之一,最新研究发现其还参与调节海马神经祖细胞增殖,提示其与神经发育存在潜在的相关性。为明确Bmal1基因在大脑皮层发育中的具体作用,本研究首先通过RT-PCR和Real-timePCR检测Bmal1基因在神经系统中的表达情况。结果表明,Bmal1基因在神经系统中表达丰富,并且在发育期的大脑内呈现特定的表达规律:在胚胎后期和出生后早期脑内表达水平相对较高,以出生后第3 d为高峰。进一步通过联合使用小鼠子宫内胚胎电转和RNAi干扰方法敲减脑内神经元中Bmal1的表达水平,结果发现胚胎期皮层神经元的放射状迁移发生了延迟,延迟程度与RNAi的敲减效率呈正相关,存在一定的基因剂量-效应关系。进一步观察发现,在胚胎期脑内神经元中降低Bmal1表达水平以后,胼胝体轴突向对侧大脑半球的投射也出现了明显的缺陷。上述研究结果表明,BMAL1是大脑皮层神经元的放射状迁移以及轴突投射发育过程中的一个重要的调控分子,为从转录因子角度深入理解大脑皮层发育的分子调节机制和寻找调控靶点提供了新的线索。     

基于表面的形态学分析在音乐家大脑结构磁共振成像中的应用

研究训练导致的脑可塑性变化对于理解人类大脑的功能是极其重要的,而音乐家的大脑是研究此类问题的一个理想模型。文章通过对性别年龄相匹配的16位音乐家和16位非音乐家大脑的结构磁共振成像进行基于皮层表面的脑形态学分析,统计对比了大脑皮层的一阶及二阶形态特征。结果显示:音乐家在枕上回、颞上沟、顶下小叶及中央旁小叶区域具有更大的皮层表面积;在胼胝体附近皮层展示出更高的平均皮层厚度;在枕叶、颞叶、额叶及顶叶中与视觉、躯体运动、情绪、运动控制、听觉及躯体感觉等功能相关的若干脑区,展示出更高的皮层形态复杂度。长期的音乐训练可能会使得音乐家大脑在基本的感知和运动系统,以及情绪相关脑区,具有更显著的皮层形态特征改善。这些结果为我们更好地理解音乐训练相关的大脑结构可塑性增添了新的证据。     

自然感觉刺激对脑发育的影响

大脑的正常认知功能依赖于其复杂而精细的神经网络。来自环境的刺激,特别是自然的感觉刺激,对大脑皮层的多个脑区中神经元的生长、突触的形成,以及神经网络的建立至关重要。感觉输入不仅可以影响其对应感觉皮层的功能,而且可以通过跨模态机制影响其他感觉皮层的功能。然而,前人关于跨模态可塑性机制的研究主要集中在成年个体上,基本没有涉及发育早期的机制。为了研究自然感觉刺激对大脑皮层的调节,中科院神经所于翔研究组建立了对新生小鼠进行感觉刺激或剥夺的行为范式,包括通过胡须拔除对小鼠进行特异的触觉剥夺、黑暗环境饲养对小鼠进行特异的视觉剥夺,和丰富环境饲养对小鼠进行多模态的自然感觉刺激。研究发现,从出生起对小鼠进行触觉或视觉剥夺,不仅影响了对应大脑皮层的发育,而且还减缓了其他感觉皮层的发育,而通过丰富环境饲养增加感觉刺激可以促进多个感觉皮层的发育。该研究揭示了一种新型的发育早期感觉经验依赖的感觉皮层跨模态可塑性机制,并发现了催产素这种由下丘脑分泌的神经肽是介导该跨模态可塑性的关键分子。催产素由于其与情绪和社交行为的相关性,已成为孤独症治疗的热点分子之一。该研究提示催产素在发育更早期就对感觉皮层的神经环路形成有重要的促进作用。鉴于孤独症患儿经常伴随有感觉输入的异常,该发现对进一步解析孤独症的致病机制有重要的借鉴意义。     

大脑皮层神经元放射状迁移的分子调控机制

神经元放射状迁移是一个复杂而又精确的过程,对大脑皮层的正常发育和功能发挥起着不可忽视的作用。近几年来的研究表明,许多重要的小分子分别从不同方面参与对这一过程的调控。对这些分子的调控机制进行深入研究,将有助于我们对神经系统发育机理和相关疾病发病机制的认识。下面就目前已发现的调控神经元放射状迁移的一些关键分子机制进行综述。     

大脑皮层在发育和进化中增大及沟回形成的分子细胞机制

非人灵长类动物在向人类的进化过程中,大脑皮层的体积不断增大,其表面沟回结构变得更加丰富,这一过程被认为与人类智力的形成密切相关,是人类大脑高级功能的神经基础。研究表明大脑皮层的大小不但受到编码基因的调控,而且还受到非编码RNA的重要影响。引人关注的是,近年来对有沟回脑的室下区(subventricular zone)外层放射状胶质细胞(outer radial glial cells,o RGs)的研究,揭示了其与大脑皮层沟回形成间的重要联系。本文通过回顾前人的研究,总结了当前在大脑皮层大小调节方面的一些重要进展,探讨了大脑皮层沟回形成的可能分子与细胞机制。     

赢家通吃:神经环路修剪的竞争机制

人类的大脑约由一千亿个神经元组成,它们通过位于树突棘结构上的突触相互连接,形成庞大的神经网络,主宰着人们的感觉、运动、记忆与情感。这个神经网络并不是一成不变的。发育早期,神经元之间的连接迅速建立;而在个体经由青少年期向成年期转变的过程中,多余的连接经由树突棘的修剪得到清除,神经环路得到优化,从而达到最佳的信息传递与储存效果。树突棘修剪对于大脑的正常功能至关重要,在多种发育性神经系统疾病中均发现了树突棘修剪的异常,但介导该过程的分子机制是基本未知的。中国科学院神经科学研究所于翔研究组的工作发现,发育过程中小鼠感觉皮层的树突棘修剪和被保留树突棘的成熟同时受到感觉经验的双向调控,并协同变化。通过在单个树突棘的水平精细操控细胞黏附水平和神经电活动水平,于翔实验室进一步发现这种协同的成熟/修剪变化是由相邻树突棘间对一类细胞黏附分子——cadherin/catenin复合物——的竞争所介导:竞争到更多此类复合物的树突棘变得稳定、成熟,而失败的一方则被修剪。这一"赢家通吃"的竞争模型为发育过程中神经网络的优化提供了分子机制的解释,拓展了人们对于大脑可塑性的理解,并可能代表了生物系统发育的普遍策略。鉴于树突棘修剪的异常与孤独症、精神分裂症等发育性神经系统疾病密切相关,阐明其分子机制对解析上述疾病的致病机理有重要的理论与临床意义。     

人类的性别与性别畸形

从细胞遗传学和分子遗传学的角度阐述了人类性别的形成机理和性别畸形的致病机理。人类性别的形成是以SRY基因为主导的、多基因参与和调控的、有序表达的生理过程。性别畸形的形成是由于性染色体数目或结构异常、与性别形成有关的基因缺失、突变或与其表达调控相关的其他基因突变所致。     

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mediates the effects of enriched environment (EE) on visual cortical development

Enriched environment (EE) has been recently shown to affect visual cortex development and plasticity, and to prevent dark rearing effects. The factors mediating EE effects on visual cortical development and plasticity are still unclear. We have investigated whether IGF-1 is involved in mediating EE effects on the developing visual cortex. We show that EE increases the number of IGF-1 positive neurons in the visual cortex at P18. Increasing IGF-1 in the visual cortex of non-EE rats by means of osmotic minipumps implanted at P18 mimics EE effects, accelerating visual acuity development, assessed with Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs). Blocking IGF-1 action in the visual cortex of EE rats by means of the IGF-1 receptor antagonist JB1 from P18 completely blocks EE action on visual acuity development. These results show that IGF-1 is a key factor mediating EE effects on visual cortical development. We then show that IGF-1 affects GAD65 immunoreactivity in perisomatic innervation and the condensation of Chondroitin Sulphate Proteoglycans (CSPGs) in perineuronal nets (PNNs) in the visual cortex. This suggests that IGF-1 action in mediating EE effects could be exerted through the modulation of intracortical inhibitory circuitry and PNN development.     

Postnatal Development of Thiamine Metabolism in Rat Brain

The activities of thiamine diphosphatase (TDPase), thiamine triphosphatase (TTPase), and thiamine pyrophosphokinase and the contents of thiamine and its phosphate esters were determined in rat brain cortex, cerebellum, and liver from birth to adulthood. Microsomal TTPase activity in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum increased from birth to 3 weeks, whereas that in the liver did not change during postnatal development. Microsomal TDPase activity in the cerebral cortex showed a transient increase at 1-2 weeks, but that in the cerebellum did not change during development. In contrast to the activity of the brain enzyme, that of liver microsomal TDPase increased stepwise after birth. Thiamine pyrophosphokinase activity in the cerebellum increased from birth to 3 weeks and then decreased, whereas that in the cerebral cortex and liver showed less change during development. TDP and thiamine monophosphate (TMP) levels increased after birth and plateaued at 3 weeks whereas TTP and thiamine levels showed little change during development in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum. The contents of thiamine and its phosphate esters in the liver showed more complicated changes during development. It is concluded that thiamine metabolism in the brain changes during postnatal development in a different way from that in the liver and that the development of thiamine metabolism differs among brain regions.     

Emerging roles of neural stem cells in cerebral cortex development and evolution

Expansion and folding of the cerebral cortex are landmark features of mammalian brain evolution, which are recapitulated during embryonic development. Neural stem cells and their derived germinal cells are coordinated during cerebral cortex development to produce the appropriate amounts and types of neurons. This process is further complicated in gyrencephalic species, where newborn neurons must disperse in the tangential axis to expand the cerebral cortex in surface area. Here, we review advances that have been made over the last decade in understanding the nature and diversity of telencephalic neural stem cells and their roles in cortical development, and we discuss recent progress on how newly identified types of cortical progenitor cell populations may have evolved to drive the expansion and folding of the mammalian cerebral cortex.     

Frontal lobe and cognitive development

In phylogeny as in ontogeny, the association cortex of the frontal lobe, also known as the prefrontal cortex, is a late-developing region of the neocortex. It is also one of the cortical regions to undergo the greatest expansion in the course of both evolution and individual maturation. In the human adult, the prefrontal cortex constitutes as much as nearly one-third of the totality of the neocortex. The protracted, relatively large, development of the prefrontal cortex is manifest in gross morphology as well as fine structure. In the developing individual, its late maturation is made most apparent by the late myelination of its axonal connections. This and other indices of morphological development of the prefrontal cortex correlate with the development of cognitive functions that neuropsychological studies in animals and humans have ascribed to this cortex. In broad outline, the ventromedial areas of the prefrontal cortex, which with respect to otherprefrontal areas develop relatively early, are involved in the expression and control of emotional and instinctual behaviors. On the other hand, the late maturing areas of the lateral prefrontal convexity are principally involved in higher executive functions. The most general executive function of the lateral prefrontal cortex is the temporal organization of goal-directed actions in the domains of behavior, cognition, and language. In all three domains, that global function is supported by a fundamental role of the lateral prefrontal cortex in temporal integration, that is, the integration of temporally discontinuous percepts and neural inputs into coherent structures of action. Temporal integration is in turn served by at least three cognitive functions of somewhat different prefrontal topography: working memory, preparatory set, and inhibitory control. These functions engage the prefrontal cortex in interactive cooperation with other neocortical regions. The development of language epitomizes the development of temporal integrative cognitive functions and their underlying neural substrate, notably the lateral prefrontal cortex and other late-developing cortical regions.     

Effects of repeated cocaine on medial prefrontal cortical GABAB receptor modulation of neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system

Increased excitatory output from medial prefrontal cortex is an important component in the development of cocaine sensitization. Activation of GABAergic systems in the prefrontal cortex can decrease glutamatergic activity. A recent study suggested that sensitization might be associated with a decrease in GABAB receptor responsiveness in the medial prefrontal cortex. Therefore, the present study examined whether repeated exposure to cocaine-modified neurochemical changes in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system induced by infusion of baclofen into the medial prefrontal cortex. In vivo microdialysis studies were conducted to monitor dopamine, glutamate and GABA levels in the medial prefrontal cortex and glutamate levels in the ipsilateral nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area during the infusion of baclofen into medial prefrontal cortex. Baclofen minimally affected glutamate levels in the medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens or ventral tegmental area of control animals, but dose-dependently increased glutamate levels in each of these regions in animals sensitized to cocaine. This effect was not the result of changes in GABAB receptor-mediated modulation of dopamine or GABA in the medial prefrontal cortex. The data suggest that alterations in GABAB receptor modulation of medial prefrontal cortical excitatory output may play an important role in the development of sensitization to cocaine.     

Tissue-specific expression of SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE in apple fruit during early development

Sorbitol, the primary photosynthate and translocated carbohydrate in apple (Malusxdomestica Borkh.), is converted to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.14) which is active in apple fruit throughout development. In the apple genome, nine SDH genes have been isolated and their sequences characterized, but their individual expression patterns during apple fruit set and development have not been determined. The objective of this work was to ascertain if SDH genes are differentially expressed and how their patterns of expression may relate to SDH activity in apple seed and cortex during early fruit development. Seed SDH activity was found to be much higher than cortex SDH activity per mg and g fresh weight (FW), and seed SDH activity contributed significantly to whole fruit SDH activity during weeks 2-5 after bloom. Five of the nine SDH genes present in the apple genome were expressed in apple fruit. Two SDH genes, SDH1 and SDH3, were expressed in both seed and cortex tissues. SDH2 expression was limited to cortex, while SDH6 and SDH9 were expressed in seed tissues only. SDH isomeric proteins of different pI values were detected in apple fruit. SDH isomers with pI values of 4.2, 4.8, 5.5, and 6.3 were found in seeds, and SDH isomers with pI values of 5.5, 6.3, 7.3, and 8.3 were found in cortex. The present work is the first to show that SDH is highly active in apple seed and that SDH genes are differentially expressed in seed and cortex during early development.     

Developmental links between the fetal and adult zones of the adrenal cortex revealed by lineage tracing

The nuclear receptor Ad4BP/SF-1 is essential for development of the adrenal cortex and the gonads, which derive from a common adrenogonadal primordium. The adrenal cortex subsequently forms morphologically distinct compartments: the inner (fetal) and outer (definitive or adult) zones. Despite considerable effort, the mechanisms that mediate the differential development of the adrenal and gonadal primordia and the fetal and adult adrenal cortices remain incompletely understood. We previously identified a fetal adrenal-specific enhancer (FAdE) in the Ad4BP/SF-1 locus that directs transgene expression to the fetal adrenal cortex and demonstrated that this enhancer is autoregulated by Ad4BP/SF-1. We now combine the FAdE with the Cre/loxP system to trace cell lineages in which the FAdE was active at some stage in development. These lineage-tracing studies establish definitively that the adult cortex derives from precursor cells in the fetal cortex in which the FAdE was activated before the organization into two distinct zones. The potential of these fetal adrenocortical cells to enter the pathway that eventuates in cells of the adult cortex disappeared by embryonic day 14.5. Thus, these studies demonstrate a direct link between the fetal and adult cortices involving a transition that must occur before a specific stage of development.     

Distribution of Glutamate Transporter Subtypes During Human Brain Development

Abstract: In the mature brain, removal of glutamate from the synaptic cleft plays an important role in the maintenance of subtoxic levels of glutamate. This requirement is handled by a family of glutamate transporters, EAAT1, EAAT2, EAAT3, and EAAT4. Due to the involvement of glutamate also in neuronal development, it is believed that glutamate transport plays a role in developmental processes as well. Therefore, we have used immunohistochemical and immunoblot analysis to determine the distribution of the four glutamate transporters during human brain development using human pre- and postnatal brain tissue. Regional analysis showed that each transporter subtype has a unique distribution during development. EAAT2 was the most prominent glutamate transporter subtype and was highly enriched in cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and thalamus in all ages examined. EAAT1 immunoreactivity was lower than that of EAAT2, with predominant localization in cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and periventricular region. EAAT3 was located mainly in cortex, basal ganglia, and hippocampus, and EAAT4 was found only in cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellar cortex. The distinct regional distribution of various EAAT subtypes and also the transient expression of specific EAAT subtypes during development suggest multiple functional roles for glutamate transporters in the developing brain.     

Redistribution of synaptic vesicle antigens is correlated with the disappearance of a transient synaptic zone in the developing cerebral cortex

To examine the distribution of synaptic vesicle antigens during development of the cerebral cortex, antibodies against synapsin I and p65 were used on sections of cat cerebral cortex between E40 and adulthood. In the adult, the layers of the cerebral cortex are immunoreactive for each of these antigens, while the white matter is free of staining. In contrast, the fetal and neonatal pattern of immunostaining is reversed: the cortical plate (future cortical layers) is devoid of immunoreactivity, while the marginal (future layer 1) and the intermediate zones (future white matter) are stained. Electron microscopic immunohistochemistry shows that immunolabeling is associated with presynaptic nerve terminals in the adult and during development. These observations suggest that during development the white matter is a transient synaptic neuropil and that a global redistribution of synapses takes place as the mature pattern of connections within the cerebral cortex emerges.     

Watching moving images specifically promotes development of medial area of secondary visual cortex in rat

It is generally accepted that the cortex can be divided into numerous regions depending on the type of information each processes, and that specific input is effective in improving the development of related regions. In visual cortex, many subareas are distinguished on the basis of their adequate information. However, whether the development of a subarea can be specifically improved by its particular input is still largely unknown. Here, we show the specific effects of motion information on the development of the medial area of secondary visual cortex (V2M), a subarea associated with processing the movement component of visual information. Although watching a moving or a still image had similar effects in primary visual cortex, the moving image induced multistage development of V2M in dark‐reared rats: both mRNA and protein levels of GluR2 were upregulated, the density and protein content of GluR2‐positive synapses increased, and the spine density and the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) of pyramidal neurons in Layer 5 were elevated. Our results suggest that rats are able to identify motion information, distribute it to V2M, and then use this input to specifically improve the development of V2M. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 2009