DNA错配修复与癌症的发生及治疗

DNA错配修复是细胞复制后的一种修复机制,具有维持DNA复制保真度,控制基因变异的作用。DNA错配修复缺陷使整个基因组不稳定,最终会导致肿瘤和癌症的发生。DNA错配修复系统不仅通过矫正在DNA重组和复制过程中产生的碱基错配而保持基因组的稳定,而且通过诱导DNA损伤细胞的凋亡而消除由突变细胞生长形成的癌变。错配修复缺陷细胞的抗药性也引起了癌症化疗研究方面的关注。大多数情况下,错配修复健全型细胞对肿瘤化疗药物敏感,而错配修复缺陷细胞却有较高的抗性。DNA错配修复系统通过修复和诱导细胞凋亡维护基因组稳定的功能,显示了错配修复途径在癌症生物学和分子医学中的重要性。     

一组多功能的错配修复蛋白

错配修复蛋白是DNA错配修复系统中主要功能蛋白质,主要参与DNA复制过程中对错配碱基的识别和修复.近年来研究表明错配修复蛋白还参与DNA损伤信号的传递、细胞周期的调控、减数分裂和有丝分裂等.错配修复蛋白缺陷会增加患肿瘤的危险性或者直接导致肿瘤;由于错配修复蛋白参与了DNA损伤信号传递、周期调控,错配修复蛋白缺陷还会导致细胞对相关抗癌药物产生耐受.     

DNA错配修复、染色体不稳定和肿瘤的关系

DNA错配修复系统可以识别并纠正DNA复制过程中出现的错误.保证基因组的稳定性和完整性.错配修复系统缺陷可能导致遗传物质发生突变,引发恶性肿瘤.肿瘤患者经常表现出染色体不稳定,具体表现为微卫星不稳定性和杂合性缺失.本文就DNA错配修复、染色体不稳定和肿瘤之间的联系予以综述.     

错配修复基因与涎腺肿瘤的关系

错配修复(mismatch repair,MMR)是DNA复制后的一种修复机制,对维持基因组稳定起重要作用.错配修复基因功能缺陷是继癌基因激活、抑癌基因失活之后又一肿瘤的发生、发展机制,错配修复基因的异常表达与全身多种肿瘤相关.涎腺肿瘤为口腔颌面部常见肿瘤之一,具有与其他系统肿瘤相似的组织学类型,多来源于肌上皮.近年来,有关涎腺肿瘤与错配修复基因的关系正逐步成为研究热点,本文就错配修复基因的组成、作用机制以及与涎腺肿瘤发生、发展的关系作一综述.     

DNA错配修复系统组成和功能的研究进展

DNA错配修复(Mismatch repair,MMR)系统广泛的存在于从原核到真核的生物体中,是进化上保守的生化通路.MMR系统由一系列特异性修复DNA碱基错配的酶分子(错配修复基因产物)组成.细胞由于此系统的存在使DNA复制保持忠实性,从而保持遗传物质的完整性和稳定性,避免遗传物质发生突变.MMR系统基因的失活会导致自发突变率的明显增加,从而导致微卫星不稳定(MSI),可能引发某些肿瘤发生.近年来,MMR系统的研究越来越受到学者的重视,对MMR作用机制及组成该系统的几种酶蛋白结构与功能方面的研究不断深入,加深了对MMR系统的理解.这些为MMR系统相关的应用研究,尤其是为肿瘤发生奠定了理论的基础.本文重点讨论了错配修复系统的蛋白组成、各蛋白的功能及它们如何相互协调发挥作用的最新研究进展.     

分枝杆菌非典型错配修复及其在抗生素耐药中的研究进展

错配修复(mismatch repair, MMR)是生物体DNA复制后的一种常见修复系统，对于维持基因组稳定性至关重要，其关键步骤由MutS和MutL蛋白家族的成员执行，尽管这种修复途径十分重要，但在许多古菌和放线菌基因组中并不存在MutS或MutL的同源蛋白。这类细菌(例如分枝杆菌等)采用另一种非典型的MMR途径，由核酸内切酶EndoMS/NucS发挥关键作用，与典型MMR蛋白(MutS/MutL)相比没有结构同源性。EndoMS/NucS介导的非典型错配修复在分枝杆菌DNA修复、突变和同源重组以及抗生素耐药等方面发挥重要作用。本文通过对比典型MMR途径和非典型MMR途径，深入阐述了分枝杆菌EndoMS/NucS介导的非典型MMR途径及其最新进展，以期为分枝杆菌错配修复分子机制带来新见解以及对分枝杆菌抗生素治疗提供研究线索。     

错配修复研究新进展

错配修复是细胞复制后的一种修复机制,对维修细胞遗传稳定定重要作用。近年来,对错配修复的研究进展飞速。本主要介绍近年来错配修复研究的一些新进展。     

重离子辐照酿酒酵母DNA损伤修复途径研究进展

重离子辐照通过直接和间接作用导致生物体DNA产生损伤,包括DNA的链断裂、碱基的插入或丢失以及氧化损伤等.DNA损伤直接影响复制、转录和蛋白质合成,同时还是突变的重要原因,因此,DNA损伤修复系统尤为重要.在酿酒酵母中,这些损伤主要是通过同源重组修复(homologous recombination repair,HRR)、碱基错配修复(mismatch repair,MMR)和碱基切除修复(base excision repair,BER)等途径来修复的.作为真核生物研究的模式生物,对于酿酒酵母DNA损伤修复的HRR、MMR和BER途径研究颇多,也不断有一些新的成果出现,特别是对于相关途径的完善和相关蛋白的深化更是研究热点,在此对近年来有关重离子辐照酿酒酵母DNA损伤修复途径方面的研究做一综述.     

错配修复蛋白Mlh3对四膜虫有性生殖是必需的

DNA错配修复(mismatch repair, MMR)是一种进化中保守的机制,它校正DNA复制过程中产生的错误,维持基因组的稳定性。MMR家族蛋白同时也参与多种DNA相关的生物学功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫鉴定了一种新的错配修复蛋白MLH3基因,该基因预测编码 319 个氨基酸,在有性生殖期特异表达。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Mlh3定位在有性生殖期减数分裂的小核和新发育的大核中。MLH3 敲除的突变体细胞株,在有性生殖发育期停滞在两大核和两小核阶段,新大核DNA复制受阻。γ-H2A.X 检测表明,新大核和小核有性生殖后期断裂的基因组不能正常修复,发育中的细胞裂解,不能形成有性生殖后代。结果表明,Mlh3参与四膜虫新大核发育过程基因组的断裂修复和复制,对四膜虫的有性生殖是必需的。     

线粒体DNA复制及其调控

从线粒体DNA复制的模型与机制、复制的调控、复制忠实性及其损伤修复3个方面对近年来的研究文献进行了总结.在复制的模型与机制方面,对传统的D环复制的细节有了更深入的了解,新的实验方法的结果显示,在哺乳动物中还存在着链结合单向复制和链结合双向复制2种模型.在线粒体DNA复制的调控方面,近年来研究较多的调控因子主要包括mtDNA聚合酶γ、线粒体单链结合蛋白(mtSSB)、引物酶、解旋酶、连接酶、拓扑异构酶、转录因子mtTFA等,介绍了这些因子的最新研究进展及调控机制;对mtDNA复制时期和拷贝数量调控机制的研究也有突破,确定了Abf2p是mtDNA复制时期与拷贝数目的调控因子.在mtDNA复制的忠实性及其损伤修复研究方面,主要涉及到DNA Polγ的校正功能、错配修复、重组修复、DNA切除修复等,在mtDNA损伤修复中仅存在碱基切除修复机制,缺少核苷酸切除修复机制.     

A model for initial DNA lesion recognition by NER and MMR based on local conformational flexibility

Initial recognition of DNA damage is the crucial but poorly understood first step in DNA repair by the human nucleotide excision repair(NER) and mismatch repair (MMR) systems. Failure by NER or MMR to recognize DNA damage threatens the genetic integrity of the organism and may play a role in carcinogenesis. Both NER and MMR recognize and repair a wide variety of structurally dissimilar lesions against the background of normal DNA. Previous studies have suggested that detection of thermodynamic destabilization of DNA caused by covalent damage and base mismatches is a potential mechanism by which repair pathways with broad specificity such as NER and MMR recognize their substrates. However, both NER and MMR respectively, repair a wide variety of stabilizing and destabilizing covalent DNA lesions and base pair mismatches. A common feature of lesions that are both thermodynamically stabilizing and destabilizing is the alteration of the local DNA flexibility (dynamics). In this review we describe the experimental evidence for altered dynamics from NMR and thermodynamic studies on normal and damaged DNA molecules with respect to recognition by NER and MMR. Based on these data, we propose a model for initial detection of lesions by both NER and MMR that occurs through an indirect readout mechanism of alternative DNA conformations induced by covalent damage and base mismatches.     

DNA mismatch repair defects: role in colorectal carcinogenesis

The inactivation of the DNA mismah repair (MMR) system, which is associated with the predisposition to the hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), has also been documented in nearly 20% of the sporadic colorectal cancers. These tumors are characterized by a high frequency of microsatellite instability (MSI(+) phenotype), resulting from the accumulation of small insertions or deletions that frequently arise during replication of these short repeated sequences. A germline mutation of one of the two major MMR genes (hMSH2 or hMLH1) is found in half to two-thirds of the patients with HNPCC, whereas in sporadic cases hypermethylation of the hMLH1 promoter is the major cause of the MMR defect. Germline mutations in hMSH6 are rare and rather confer predisposition to late-onset familial colorectal cancer, and frequent extracolonic tumors. Yet, the genetic background of a number of HNPCC patients remains unexplained, indicating that other genes participate in MMR and play important roles in cancer susceptibility. The tumor-suppressor genes that are potential targets for the MSI-driven mutations because they contain hypermutable repeated sequences are likely to contribute to the etiology and tissue specificity of the MSI-associated carcinogenesis. Because the prognosis and the chemosensitivity of the MSI(+) colorectal tumors differ from those without instability, the determination of the MSI phenotype is expected to improve the clinical management of patients. This review gives an overview of various aspects of the biochemistry and genetics of the DNA mismah repair system, with particular emphasis in its role in colorectal carcinogenesis.     

Molecular analysis of DNA repair gene methylation and protein expression during chemical-induced rat lung carcinogenesis

A defective ratio between DNA damage and repair may result in the occurrence of a malignant phenotype. Previous studies have found that many genetic alterations in DNA repair genes occur frequently in lung cancer. However, the epigenetic mechanisms underlying this tumorigenesis are not clear. Herein, we have used a chemical-induced rat lung carcinogenesis model to study the evolution of methylation alterations of DNA repair genes BRCA1, ERCC1, XRCC1, and MLH1. Methylation-specific PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to analyze gene methylation status and protein expression during the progression of lung carcinogenesis. Promoter hypermethylation of BRCA1 was only detected in three samples of infiltrating carcinoma. CpG island hypermethylation of ERCC1, XRCC1, and MLH1 was found to increase gradually throughout lung carcinogenesis progression. Both the prevalence of at least one methylated gene and the average number of methylated genes were heightened in squamous metaplasia and dysplasia compared with normal tissue and hyperplasia, and was further increased in carcinoma in situ (CIS) and infiltrating carcinoma. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that BRCA1 and MLH1 protein expression decreased progressively during the stages of lung carcinogenesis, whereas ERCC1 and XRCC1 expression were only found in later stages. Although methylation levels were elevated for ERCC1 and XRCC1 during carcinogenesis, an inverse correlation with protein expression was found only for BRCA1 and MLH1. These results suggest that a continuous accumulation of DNA repair gene hypermethylation and the consequent protein alterations might be a vital molecular mechanism during the process of multistep chemical-induced rat lung carcinogenesis.     

The role of p53 in treatment responses of lung cancer

Resistance to radio- and chemotherapy is a major problem in treatment responses of lung cancer. In this disease, biological markers, that can be predictive of response to treatment for guiding clinical practice, still need to be validated. Radiotherapy and most chemotherapeutic agents directly target DNA and in response to such therapies, p53 functions as a coordinator of the DNA repair process, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. In fact, it participates in the main DNA repair systems operative in cells, including NHEJ, HRR, NER, BER, and MMR. Given the high p53 mutation frequency in lung cancer which likely impairs some of the p53-mediated functions, a role of p53 as a predictive marker for treatment responses has been suggested. In this review, we summarize the conflicting results coming from preclinical and clinical studies on the role of p53 as a predictive marker of responses to chemotherapy or radiotherapy in lung cancer.     

Cadmium inhibits human DNA mismatch repair in vivo

The heavy metal cadmium (Cd) is a human carcinogen that inhibits DNA repair activities. We show that DNA mismatch repair (MMR)-mediated cell cycle arrest after alkylation damage is suppressed by exposure to Cd and that this effect is reversed by preincubation with excess of zinc (Zn). We show that Cd-mediated inactivation of MMR activity is not caused by disruption of complex formation between the MMR proteins hEXO1-hMutS alpha and hEXO1-hMutL alpha nor does Cd inhibit 5'-exonuclease activity of hEXO1 in vitro. Thus, our studies show that exposure of human cells to Cd suppresses MMR activity, a repair activity known to play an important role in colon cancer and that this effect can be reversed by Zn treatment.     

Endometrial Cancer as a Familial Tumor: Pathology and Molecular Carcinogenesis (Review)

Some cases of endometrial cancer are associated with a familial tumor and are referred to as hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome). Such tumors are thought to be induced by germline mutation of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) gene, but many aspects of the pathology of familial endometrial cancer are unclear and no effective screening method has been established. However, the pathology of endometrial cancer with familial tumor has been progressively clarified in recent studies. At present, about 0.5% of all cases of endometrial cancers meet the clinical diagnostic criteria for HNPCC. A recent analysis of the three MMR genes (hMLH1, hMSH2 and hMSH6) revealed germline mutations in 18 of 120 cases (15.0%) of endometrial cancer with familial accumulation of cancer or double cancer, with a frameshift mutation of the hMSH6 gene being the most common. Many cases with mutation did not meet the current clinical diagnostic criteria for HNPCC, indicating that familial endometrial cancer is often not diagnosed as HNPCC. The results suggest that the hMSH6 gene mutation may be important in carcinogenesis in endometrial cancer and germline mutations of the MMR gene may be more prevalent in cases associated with familial accumulation of cancer. An international large-scale muticenter study is required to obtain further information about the pathology of endometrial cancer as a familial tumor.Key Words: HNPCC, Endometrial cancer, DNA mismatch repair gene, hMLH1, hMSH6.     

Bacterial DNA repair genes and their eukaryotic homologues: 2. Role of bacterial mutator gene homologues in human disease. Overview of nucleotide pool sanitization and mismatch repair systems

Since the discovery of the first E. coli mutator gene, mutT, most of the mutations inducing elevated spontaneous mutation rates could be clearly attributed to defects in DNA repair. MutT turned out to be a pyrophosphohydrolase hydrolyzing 8-oxodGTP, thus preventing its incorporation into DNA and suppresing the occurrence of spontaneous AT-->CG transversions. Most of the bacterial mutator genes appeared to be evolutionarily conserved, and scientists were continuously searching for contribution of DNA repair deficiency in human diseases, especially carcinogenesis. Yet a human MutT homologue--hMTH1 protein--was found to be overexpressed rather than inactivated in many human diseases, including cancer. The interest in DNA repair contribution to human diseases exploded with the observation that germline mutations in mismatch repair (MMR) genes predispose to hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). Despite our continuously growing knowledge about DNA repair we still do not fully understand how the mutator phenotype contributes to specific forms of human diseases.