植物铜转运蛋白结构、功能及调控机制

植物通过转运蛋白吸收和转运矿质离子。为保持离子可用性和避免离子过度积累,离子转运蛋白的丰度和活性受到严格调控。铜转运蛋白(copper transporter, COPT)具有明显的结构特征和独特的亚细胞定位模式,在植物铜吸收、内源免疫和共生固氮等过程中发挥重要作用。该文对植物COPT家族蛋白的结构特征、生物学功能和调控机制等方面的研究进展进行综述,为植物铜稳态机制的揭示及品种改良提供参考。     

漆酶的性质、功能、催化机理和应用

漆酶是一种结合多个铜离子的蛋白,是铜蓝氧化酶蛋白家族的一员。本文叙述漆酶的分子结构、底物特异性及其物理化学特性,并讨论漆酶的酶促反应机理和生物学功能,包括植物漆酶参与细胞壁的形成以及漆酶与病原菌毒力的关系。本文还着重介绍了漆酶在环境生物修复方面的应用。     

铜在植物生长发育中的作用

铜是植物正常生命活动所必需的 7种微量元素之一 ,参与植物生长发育过程中的多种代谢反应。铜是多酚氧化酶、抗坏血酸氧化酶、细胞色素氧化酶等的组成成分 ,参与植物体内的氧化还原过程。它也存在于叶绿体的质体蓝素中 ,参与光合作用的电子传递。1　植物对铜的吸收及其代谢植物通过根部从土壤中以离子形式吸收铜 ,也可通过叶面吸收。根部除了吸收溶解在土壤溶液中的铜以外 ,还能通过分泌出柠檬酸、苹果酸等有机酸以及呼吸作用形成的碳酸溶解难溶性物质以获取铜。影响根部吸收铜的因素除温度、通气状况、溶液浓度和离子间相互作用外 ,很重要…     

漆酶的性质、功能、催化机理和应用

漆酶是一种结合多个铜离子的蛋白,是铜蓝氧化酶蛋白家族的一员。本文叙述漆酶的分子结构、底物特异性及其物理化学特性,并讨论漆酶的酶促反应机理和生物学功能,包括植物漆酶参与细胞壁的形成以及漆酶与病原菌毒力的关系。本文还着重介绍了漆酶在环境生物修复方面的应用。     

维持细胞内铜离子浓度稳定的分子机制

对生命而言,铜是一种必须的微量元素,它以辅基的形式参与细胞内多种重要的代谢途径。赖氨酸氧化酶参与结缔组织的形成和胶原交联,超氧化物歧化酶清除胞内自由基,细胞色素氧化酶是呼吸链电子传送蛋白,酷氨酸酶参与色素形成途径,多巴胺β羟化酶则与神经传导有关。细胞内铜离子浓度过低会影响这些酶的活性及相应的生理代谢途径,影响细胞的生存。但细胞内铜离子浓度超过生理需求也会引起严重的问题。铜离子能氧化蛋白,脂类和ＤＮ     

铜稳态对铁代谢平衡的影响

铜是人体必需的微量元素,参与体内多种蛋白和酶的组成,机体内存在严格的铜稳态调控机制。作为血浆中最主要的多铜亚铁氧化酶——铜蓝蛋白,与另外两种同源亚铁氧化酶——膜铁转运辅助蛋白和zyklopen,共同参与体内铁的转运,维持铁代谢的平衡。将对调节铜和铁平衡的重要意义以及铜和铁在机体代谢过程中的相互作用、发展动态进行讨论。     

植物乳杆菌源胺氧化酶的异源表达及功能结构分析

【目的】生物胺是一类广泛存在发酵食品中潜在有害物质,可被胺氧化酶分解。本研究对来源于乳酸菌的胺氧化酶的酶学性质及其降生物胺能力进行了探究。【方法】本研究在大肠杆菌中异源表达了植物乳杆菌中多铜氧化酶基因SufI,经过优化表达条件与纯化重组酶后,分析了该酶的最适反应条件、酶稳定性、降生物胺能力、光谱与结构特性。【结果】重组酶的最适pH值为3.5,最适温度为20℃,在pH 4.0–10.0或15–65℃的条件下,相对酶活力保持在70%以上。重组酶具有较好的稳定性,酶活不受乙醇等抑制剂的影响。在8种生物胺的混合体系内,重组酶对生物胺总量的降解量可达403.23μg/mL,其中对酪胺的降解量最多,超过70μg/mL (34.99%)。在单一生物胺体系内,重组酶对酪的底物亲和性较高,酶活可达18.33U/mL。紫外-可见扫描光谱显示酶蛋白在600 nm处有多铜氧化酶家族特征吸收峰,傅里叶红外光谱解析酰胺Ⅰ带中α螺旋、β折叠、β转角和无规则卷曲的相对含量分别为21.52%、20.72%、33.80%和23.97%。同源建模预测该酶具有3个铜结合域,且含有组氨酸、半胱氨酸、甲硫氨酸和谷氨酸等铜配体结合...     

梯棱羊肚菌AA1_2家族多铜氧化酶基因的异源表达与生化鉴定

典型的漆酶通常属于辅助活性酶第一家族第一亚族（auxiliary activity family 1 subfamily 1,简称AA1_1家族）,而AA1_2家族的多铜氧化酶通常拥有将二价铁氧化成三价铁的活性,部分AA1_2家族酶蛋白兼具漆酶活性。梯棱羊肚菌全基因组只有一个AA1_2家族酶基因,该基因编码的酶蛋白是否拥有漆酶功能尚未清楚。本研究主要从酶生化特性的角度,结合酶基因的表达规律,对该基因的功能进行初探。对该AA1_2家族基因在梯棱羊肚菌生长发育不同阶段的表达水平进行实时定量PCR检测;将该基因编码序列克隆到表达载体中在大肠杆菌中异源表达,层析获得纯化的酶蛋白,对酶蛋白的生化特性进行了鉴定。发现该AA1_2多铜氧化酶基因在外源营养袋和土壤中的营养菌丝里低表达,在菇原基和子实体中表达较活跃。异源表达获得纯化的酶蛋白分子量约64kDa,表现出亚铁氧化酶（EC 1.16.3.1）与漆酶（EC 1.10.3.2）双重活性。其亚铁氧化酶活性在pH 4最高,漆酶活性在pH 6最高。亚铁氧化酶活性与漆酶活性的最适温度均为30℃左右,在30℃温育16h后仍保留70%以上活性。亚铁氧化酶和漆酶活性受Mn ²⁺、Hg ²⁺和Pb ²⁺抑制。对蛋白质变性剂SDS、尿素的耐受性较强。本研究通过酶学证据证实了梯棱羊肚菌AA1_2家族多铜氧化酶基因编码的酶蛋白具有亚铁氧化酶-漆酶双重活性,系在子囊菌大型真菌中首次发现,为进一步研究铁元素代谢与漆酶活性在羊肚菌子实体形成与发育过程中的作用提供了启示。     

植物铜转运蛋白的结构和功能

铜(Cu)是植物必需的微量营养元素, 参与植物生长发育过程中的许多生理生化反应。Cu缺乏或过量都会影响植物的正常新陈代谢过程。因此, 植物需要一系列Cu转运蛋白协同作用以保持体内Cu离子的稳态平衡。通常, Cu转运蛋白可分为两类, 即吸收型Cu转运蛋白(如COPT、ZIP和YSL蛋白家族)和排出型Cu转运蛋白(如HMA蛋白家族), 主要负责Cu离子的跨膜转运及调节Cu离子的吸收和排出。然而, 最近有研究表明, 有些Cu伴侣蛋白家族可能是从Cu转运蛋白家族进化而来, 且它们在维持植物细胞Cu离子稳态平衡中也具重要功能。该文对Cu转运蛋白和Cu伴侣蛋白的表达、结构、定位及功能等研究进展进行综述。     

维持细胞内铜离子浓度稳定的分子机制

对生命而言,铜是一种必须的微量元素,它以辅基的形式参与细胞内多种重要的代谢途径。赖氨酸氧化酶参与结缔组织的形成和胶原交联,超氧化物歧化酶清除胞内自由基,细胞色素氧化酶是呼吸链电子传送蛋白,酪氨酸酶参与色素形成途径,多巴胺β羟化酶则与神经传导有关。细胞内铜离子浓度过低会影响这些酶的活性及相应的生理代谢途径,影响细胞的生存。但细胞内铜离子浓度超过生理需求也会引起严重的问题。铜离子能氧化蛋白,脂类和ＤＮＡ,同时促进形成自由基,引起细胞死亡［１］。人体很多疾病都是由于铜离子代谢异常引起的,其中最著名的就是Ｗｉｌｓｏｎ［２］ 和Ｍｅｎｋｓ［３］病,它们分别是由过多铜离子在细胞内堆积和细胞内铜离子浓度过低导致的。另外,铜离子缺乏还会引起心脏疾病［４］。所以,将细胞内铜离子浓度维持在一稳定水平对细胞生存至关重要。生理性铜离子浓度的维持主要在于四个环节：铜离子进入胞内（ｕｐｔａｋｅ）、胞内运送（ｔｒａｎｓｌｏｃａｔｉｏｎ）、合成金属蛋白（ｓｙｎｔｈｅｓｉｓ）及清除过多铜离子（ｅｌｉｍ ｉｎａｔｉｏｎ）［５］。对于过高或过低的铜离子浓度,细胞主要是通过改变流入量（ｉｎｆｌｕｘ）和流出量（ｅｆｆｌｕｘ）来应答。另外,金属硫蛋白可与过多铜离子结合,避免其破坏作用,这种保护方式叫隔离（ｓｅｑｕｅｓｔｒａｔｉｏｎ）。事实上,每一环节都有不止一种蛋白和调控蛋白在起作用。近年来对这方面的研究取得了不少进展,本文在此对细菌、酵母和人的铜离子代谢途径做一总结和比较。     

Redox potentials of the blue copper sites of bilirubin oxidases

The redox potentials of the multicopper redox enzyme bilirubin oxidase (BOD) from two organisms were determined by mediated and direct spectroelectrochemistry. The potential of the T1 site of BOD from the fungus Myrothecium verrucaria was close to 670 mV, whereas that from Trachyderma tsunodae was >650 mV vs. NHE. For the first time, direct electron transfer was observed between gold electrodes and BODs. The redox potentials of the T2 sites of both BODs were near 390 mV vs. NHE, consistent with previous finding for laccase and suggesting that the redox potentials of the T2 copper sites of most blue multicopper oxidases are similar, about 400 mV.     

The multicopper oxidase CutO confers copper tolerance to Rhodobacter capsulatus

The cutO gene of the photosynthetic purple bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus codes for a multicopper oxidase as demonstrated by the ability of the recombinant Strep-tagged protein to oxidize several mono- and diphenolic compounds known as substrates of Escherichia coli CueO and multicopper oxidases from other organisms. The R. capsulatus cutO gene was shown to form part of a tri-cistronic operon, orf635-cutO-cutR. Expression of the cutO operon was repressed under low copper conditions by the product of the cutR gene. CutO conferred copper tolerance not only under aerobic conditions, as described for the well-characterized E. coli multicopper oxidase CueO, but also under anaerobic conditions.     

Redox potentials of the blue copper sites of bilirubin oxidases

The redox potentials of the multicopper redox enzyme bilirubin oxidase (BOD) from two organisms were determined by mediated and direct spectroelectrochemistry. The potential of the T1 site of BOD from the fungus Myrothecium verrucaria was close to 670 mV, whereas that from Trachyderma tsunodae was > 650 mV vs. NHE. For the first time, direct electron transfer was observed between gold electrodes and BODs. The redox potentials of the T2 sites of both BODs were near 390 mV vs. NHE, consistent with previous finding for laccase and suggesting that the redox potentials of the T2 copper sites of most blue multicopper oxidases are similar, about 400 mV.     

Ferroxidase activity in a laccase-like multicopper oxidase from Liriodendron tulipifera.

Ferroxidase activity was detected in a laccase-like multicopper oxidase (LMCO) produced in transgenic tobacco cells expressing an LMCO cDNA (Ltlacc2.2) cloned from yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). This marks the first report of ferroxidase activity associated with a plant laccase and suggests that some members of this plant enzyme family may have physiological functions based on activities other than their more widely recognized phenoloxidase activity. Recent work with LMCOs from bacteria, yeast and mammals has shown that metal oxidase activities in these enzymes can be important for their primary physiological functions, With respect to ferroxidase activity in certain plant LMCOs, it is proposed that the high levels of LMCO expression in plant vascular tissues may reflect the need for high-efficiency iron uptake pumps in tissues that undergo lignification during normal development. Such iron uptake pumps would function to minimize levels of free iron so that reactive oxygen species do not reach toxic levels when H2O2 is generated for peroxidase-mediated monolignol coupling during lignin deposition.     

Cloning of a phenol oxidase gene from Acremonium murorum and its expression in Aspergillus awamori

Fungal multicopper oxidases have many potential industrial applications, since they perform reactions under mild conditions. We isolated a phenol oxidase from the fungus Acremonium murorum var. murorum that was capable of decolorizing plant chromophores (such as anthocyanins). This enzyme is of interest in laundry-cleaning products because of its broad specificity for chromophores. We expressed an A. murorum cDNA library in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and subsequently identified enzyme-producing yeast colonies based on their ability to decolor a plant chromophore. The cDNA sequence contained an open reading frame of 1,806 bp encoding an enzyme of 602 amino acids. The phenol oxidase was overproduced by Aspergillus awamori as a fusion protein with glucoamylase, cleaved in vivo, and purified from the culture broth by hydrophobic-interaction chromatography. The phenol oxidase is active at alkaline pH (the optimum for syringaldazine is pH 9) and high temperature (optimum, 60 degrees C) and is fully stable for at least 1 h at 60 degrees C under alkaline conditions. These characteristics and the high production level of 0.6 g of phenol oxidase per liter in shake flasks, which is equimolar with the glucoamylase protein levels, make this enzyme suitable for use in processes that occur under alkaline conditions, such as laundry cleaning.     

Gene structure and molecular analysis of the laccase-like multicopper oxidase (LMCO) gene family in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis>

Completed genome sequences have made it clear that multicopper oxidases related to laccase are widely distributed as multigene families in higher plants. Laccase-like multicopper oxidase (LMCO) sequences culled from GenBank and the Arabidopsis thaliana genome, as well as those from several newly cloned genes, were used to construct a gene phylogeny that clearly divided plant LMCOs into six distinct classes, at least three of which predate the evolutionary divergence of angiosperms and gymnosperms. Alignments of the predicted amino acid sequences highlighted regions of variable sequence flanked by the highly conserved copper-binding domains that characterize members of this enzyme family. All of the predicted proteins contained apparent signal sequences. The expression of 13 of the 17 LMCO genes in A. thaliana was assessed in different tissues at various stages of development using RT-PCR. A diversity of expression patterns was demonstrated with some genes being expressed in a constitutive fashion, while others were only expressed in specific tissues at a particular stage of development. Only a few of the LMCO genes were expressed in a pattern that could be considered consistent with a major role for these enzymes in lignin deposition. These results are discussed in the context of other potential physiological functions for plant LMCOs, such as iron metabolism and wound healing.     

The involvement of a multicopper oxidase in iron uptake by the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

In the unicellular green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, high-affinity uptake of iron (Fe) requires an Fe(3+)-chelate reductase and an Fe transporter. Neither of these proteins nor their corresponding genes have been isolated. We previously identified, by analysis of differentially expressed plasma membrane proteins, an approximately 150-kD protein whose synthesis was induced under conditions of Fe-deficient growth. Based on homology of internal peptide sequences to the multicopper oxidase hephaestin, this protein was proposed to be a ferroxidase. A nucleotide sequence to the full-length cDNA clone for this ferroxidase-like protein has been obtained. Analysis of the primary amino acid sequence revealed a putative transmembrane domain near the amino terminus of the protein and signature sequences for two multicopper oxidase I motifs and one multicopper oxidase II motif. The ferroxidase-like gene was transcribed under conditions of Fe deficiency. Consistent with the role of a copper (Cu)-containing protein in Fe homeostasis, growth of cells in Cu-depleted media eliminated high-affinity Fe uptake, and Cu-deficient cells that were grown in optimal Fe showed greatly reduced Fe accumulation compared with control, Cu-sufficient cells. Reapplication of Cu resulted in the recovery of Fe transport activity. Together, these results were consistent with the participation of a ferroxidase in high-affinity Fe uptake in C. reinhardtii.