An enhancer at the 3'' end of the mouse immunoglobulin heavy chain locus.

A tissue-specific enhancer (E mu) lies between the joining (JH) and mu constant region (C mu) gene segments of the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) locus. Since mouse endogenous IgH genes are efficiently transcribed in its absence, the normal function of this enhancer remains ill-defined. Recently, another lymphoid-specific enhancer of equal strength has been identified 3' of the rat IgH locus. We have isolated an analogous sequence from mouse and have mapped it 12.5 kb 3' of the 3'-most constant region gene (C alpha-membrane) of the BALB/c mouse locus. The mouse and rat sequences are 82% homologous and share with other enhancers several DNA sequence motifs capable of binding protein. However, in transient transfection assays, the mouse sequence behaves as a weaker enhancer. The role of this distant element in the expression of endogenous IgH genes, both in E mu-deficient, Ig-producing cell lines and during normal B cell development, is discussed.     

Alignment of U3 region sequences of mammalian type C viruses: identification of highly conserved motifs and implications for enhancer design.

We aligned published sequences for the U3 region of 35 type C mammalian retroviruses. The alignment reveals that certain sequence motifs within the U3 region are strikingly conserved. A number of these motifs correspond to previously identified sites. In particular, we found that the enhancer region of most of the viruses examined contains a binding site for leukemia virus factor b, a viral corelike element, the consensus motif for nuclear factor 1, and the glucocorticoid response element. Most viruses containing more than one copy of enhancer sequences include these binding sites in both copies of the repeat. We consider this set of binding sites to constitute a framework for the enhancers of this set of viruses. Other highly conserved motifs in the U3 region include the retrovirus inverted repeat sequence, a negative regulatory element, and the CCAAT and TATA boxes. In addition, we identified two novel motifs in the promoter region that were exceptionally highly conserved but have not been previously described.     

Regulation of Six1 expression by evolutionarily conserved enhancers in tetrapods

The Six1 homeobox gene plays critical roles in vertebrate organogenesis. Mice deficient for Six1 show severe defects in organs such as skeletal muscle, kidney, thymus, sensory organs and ganglia derived from cranial placodes, and mutations in human SIX1 cause branchio-oto-renal syndrome, an autosomal dominant developmental disorder characterized by hearing loss and branchial defects. The present study was designed to identify enhancers responsible for the dynamic expression pattern of Six1 during mouse embryogenesis. The results showed distinct enhancer activities of seven conserved non-coding sequences (CNSs) retained in tetrapod Six1 loci. The activities were detected in all cranial placodes (excluding the lens placode), dorsal root ganglia, somites, nephrogenic cord, notochord and cranial mesoderm. The major Six1-expression domains during development were covered by the sum of activities of these enhancers, together with the previously identified enhancer for the pre-placodal region and foregut endoderm. Thus, the eight CNSs identified in a series of our study represent major evolutionarily conserved enhancers responsible for the expression of Six1 in tetrapods. The results also confirmed that chick electroporation is a robust means to decipher regulatory information stored in vertebrate genomes. Mutational analysis of the most conserved placode-specific enhancer, Six1-21, indicated that the enhancer integrates a variety of inputs from Sox, Pax, Fox, Six, Wnt/Lef1 and basic helix-loop-helix proteins. Positive autoregulation of Six1 is achieved through the regulation of Six protein-binding sites. The identified Six1 enhancers provide valuable tools to understand the mechanism of Six1 regulation and to manipulate gene expression in the developing embryo, particularly in the sensory organs.     

Efficient identification of regulatory sequences in the chicken genome by a powerful combination of embryo electroporation and genome comparison

Recently expanded knowledge of gene regulation clearly indicates that the regulatory sequences of a gene, usually identified as enhancers, are widely distributed in the gene locus, revising the classical view that they are clustered in the vicinity of genes. To identify regulatory sequences for Sox2 expression governing early neurogenesis, we scanned the 50-kb region of the chicken Sox2 locus for enhancer activity utilizing embryo electroporation, resulting in identification of a number of enhancers scattered throughout the analyzed genomic span. The 'pan-neural' Sox2 expression in early embryos is actually brought about by the composite activities of five separate enhancers with distinct spatio-temporal specificities. These and other functionally defined enhancers exactly correspond to extragenic sequence blocks that are conspicuously conserved between the chicken and mammalian genomes and that are embedded in sequences with a wide range of sequence conservation between humans and mice. The sequences conserved between amniotes and teleosts correspond to subregions of the enhancer subsets which presumably represent core motifs of the enhancers, and the limited conservation partly reflects divergent expression patterns of the gene. The phylogenic distance between the chicken and mammals appears optimal for identifying a battery of genetic regulatory elements as conserved sequence blocks, and chicken embryo electroporation facilitates functional characterization of these elements.