Compartmentation of triacylglycerol accumulation in plants

Triacylglycerols from plants, familiar to most people as vegetable oils, supply 25% of dietary calories to the developed world and are increasingly a source for renewable biomaterials and fuels. Demand for vegetable oils will double by 2030, which can be met only by increased oil production. Triacylglycerol synthesis is accomplished through the coordinate action of multiple pathways in multiple subcellular compartments. Recent information has revealed an underappreciated complexity in pathways for synthesis and accumulation of this important energy-rich class of molecules.     

Conjugated fatty acid synthesis: residues 111 and 115 influence product partitioning of Momordica charantia conjugase

Conjugated linolenic acids (CLNs), 18:3 Δ(9,11,13), lack the methylene groups found between the double bonds of linolenic acid (18:3 Δ(9,12,15)). CLNs are produced by conjugase enzymes that are homologs of the oleate desaturases FAD2. The goal of this study was to map the domain(s) within the Momordica charantia conjugase (FADX) responsible for CLN formation. To achieve this, a series of Momordica FADX-Arabidopsis FAD2 chimeras were expressed in the Arabidopsis fad3fae1 mutant, and the transformed seeds were analyzed for the accumulation of CLN. These experiments identified helix 2 and the first histidine box as a determinant of conjugase product partitioning into punicic acid (18:3 Δ(9cis,11trans,13cis)) or α-eleostearic acid (18:3 Δ(9cis,11trans,13trans)). This was confirmed by analysis of a FADX mutant containing six substitutions in which the sequence of helix 2 and first histidine box was converted to that of FAD2. Each of the six FAD2 substitutions was individually converted back to the FADX equivalent identifying residues 111 and 115, adjacent to the first histidine box, as key determinants of conjugase product partitioning. Additionally, expression of FADX G111V and FADX G111V/D115E resulted in an approximate doubling of eleostearic acid accumulation to 20.4% and 21.2%, respectively, compared with 9.9% upon expression of the native Momordica FADX. Like the Momordica conjugase, FADX G111V and FADX D115E produced predominantly α-eleostearic acid and little punicic acid, but the FADX G111V/D115E double mutant produced approximately equal amounts of α-eleostearic acid and its isomer, punicic acid, implicating an interactive effect of residues 111 and 115 in punicic acid formation.     

Functional Diversity in Fungal Fatty Acid Synthesis: THE FIRST ACETYLENASE FROM THE PACIFIC GOLDEN CHANTERELLE,CANTHARELLUS FORMOSUS*

Acetylenic specialized metabolites containing one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds are widespread, being found in fungi, vascular and lower plants, marine sponges and algae, and insects. Plants, moss, and most recently, insects, have been shown to employ an energetically difficult, sequential dehydrogenation mechanism for acetylenic bond formation. Here, we describe the cloning and heterologous expression in yeast of a linoleoyl 12-desaturase (acetylenase) and a bifunctional desaturase with Δ¹²-/Δ¹⁴-regiospecificity from the Pacific golden chanterelle. The acetylenase gene, which is the first identified from a fungus, is phylogenetically distinct from known plant and fungal desaturases. Together, the bifunctional desaturase and the acetylenase provide the enzymatic activities required to drive oleate through linoleate to crepenynate and the conjugated enyne (14Z)-dehydrocrepenynate, the branchpoint precursors to a major class of acetylenic natural products.     

Increased lipogenesis and stearate accelerate vascular calcification in calcifying vascular cells

Vascular calcification is recognized as an independent predictor of cardiovascular mortality, particularly in subjects with chronic kidney disease. However, the pathways by which dysregulation of lipid and mineral metabolism simultaneously occur in this particular population remain unclear. We have shown that activation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) blocks mineralization of bovine calcifying vascular cells (CVCs) and in ApoE knock-out mice with 5/6 nephrectomy. In contrast to FXR, this study showed that liver X receptor (LXR) activation by LXR agonists and adenovirus-mediated LXR overexpression by VP16-LXRα and VP16-LXRβ accelerated mineralization of CVCs. Conversely, LXR inhibition by dominant negative (DN) forms of LXRα and LXRβ reduced calcium content in CVCs. The regulation of mineralization by FXR and LXR agonists was highly correlated with changes in lipid accumulation, fatty acid synthesis, and the expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP-1). The rate of lipogenesis in CVCs through the SREBP-1c dependent pathway was reduced by FXR activation, but increased by LXR activation. SREBP-1c overexpression augmented mineralization in CVCs, whereas SREBP-1c DN inhibited alkaline phosphatase activity and mineralization induced by LXR agonists. LXR and SREBP-1c activations increased, whereas FXR activation decreased, saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids derived from lipogenesis. In addition, we found that stearate markedly promoted mineralization of CVCs as compared with other fatty acids. Furthermore, inhibition of either acetyl-CoA carboxylase or acyl-CoA synthetase reduced mineralization of CVCs, whereas inhibition of stearoyl-CoA desaturase induced mineralization. Therefore, a stearate metabolite derived from lipogenesis might be a risk factor for the development of vascular calcification.     

Evidence for Physical Association of Mitochondrial Fatty Acid Oxidation and Oxidative Phosphorylation Complexes

Fatty acid β-oxidation (FAO) and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) are key pathways involved in cellular energetics. Reducing equivalents from FAO enter OXPHOS at the level of complexes I and III. Genetic disorders of FAO and OXPHOS are among the most frequent inborn errors of metabolism. Patients with deficiencies of either FAO or OXPHOS often show clinical and/or biochemical findings indicative of a disorder of the other pathway. In this study, the physical and functional interactions between these pathways were examined. Extracts of isolated rat liver mitochondria were subjected to blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BNGE) to separate OXPHOS complexes and supercomplexes followed by Western blotting using antisera to various FAO enzymes. Extracts were also subjected to sucrose density centrifugation and fractions analyzed by BNGE or enzymatic assays. Several FAO enzymes co-migrated with OXPHOS supercomplexes in different patterns in the gels. When palmitoyl-CoA was added to the sucrose gradient fractions containing OXPHOS supercomplexes in the presence of potassium cyanide, cytochrome c was reduced. Cytochrome c reduction was completely blocked by myxothiazol (a complex III inhibitor) and 3-mercaptopropionate (an inhibitor of the first step of FAO), but was only partially inhibited by rotenone (a complex I inhibitor). Although palmitoyl-CoA and octanoyl-CoA provided reducing equivalents to OXPHOS-containing supercomplex fractions, no accumulation of their intermediates was detected. In contrast, short branched acyl-CoA substrates were not metabolized by OXPHOS-containing supercomplex fractions. These data provide evidence of a multifunctional FAO complex within mitochondria that is physically associated with OXPHOS supercomplexes and promotes metabolic channeling.     

Increasing NAD Synthesis in Muscle via Nicotinamide Phosphoribosyltransferase Is Not Sufficient to Promote Oxidative Metabolism

The NAD biosynthetic precursors nicotinamide mononucleotide and nicotinamide riboside are reported to confer resistance to metabolic defects induced by high fat feeding in part by promoting oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle. Similar effects are obtained by germ line deletion of major NAD-consuming enzymes, suggesting that the bioavailability of NAD is limiting for maximal oxidative capacity. However, because of their systemic nature, the degree to which these interventions exert cell- or tissue-autonomous effects is unclear. Here, we report a tissue-specific approach to increase NAD biosynthesis only in muscle by overexpressing nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, the rate-limiting enzyme in the salvage pathway that converts nicotinamide to NAD (mNAMPT mice). These mice display a ∼50% increase in skeletal muscle NAD levels, comparable with the effects of dietary NAD precursors, exercise regimens, or loss of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases yet surprisingly do not exhibit changes in muscle mitochondrial biogenesis or mitochondrial function and are equally susceptible to the metabolic consequences of high fat feeding. We further report that chronic elevation of muscle NAD in vivo does not perturb the NAD/NADH redox ratio. These studies reveal for the first time the metabolic effects of tissue-specific increases in NAD synthesis and suggest that critical sites of action for supplemental NAD precursors reside outside of the heart and skeletal muscle.     

Ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase, a new enzyme involved in metabolite proofreading

A limited number of enzymes are known that play a role analogous to DNA proofreading by eliminating non-classical metabolites formed by side activities of enzymes of intermediary metabolism. Because few such "metabolite proofreading enzymes" are known, our purpose was to search for an enzyme able to degrade ethylmalonyl-CoA, a potentially toxic metabolite formed at a low rate from butyryl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase and propionyl-CoA carboxylase, two major enzymes of lipid metabolism. We show that mammalian tissues contain a previously unknown enzyme that decarboxylates ethylmalonyl-CoA and, at lower rates, methylmalonyl-CoA but that does not act on malonyl-CoA. Ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase is particularly abundant in brown adipose tissue, liver, and kidney in mice, and is essentially cytosolic. Because Escherichia coli methylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase belongs to the family of enoyl-CoA hydratase (ECH), we searched mammalian databases for proteins of uncharacterized function belonging to the ECH family. Combining this database search approach with sequencing data obtained on a partially purified enzyme preparation, we identified ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase as ECHDC1. We confirmed this identification by showing that recombinant mouse ECHDC1 has a substantial ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase activity and a lower methylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase activity but no malonyl-CoA decarboxylase or enoyl-CoA hydratase activity. Furthermore, ECHDC1-specific siRNAs decreased the ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase activity in human cells and increased the formation of ethylmalonate, most particularly in cells incubated with butyrate. These findings indicate that ethylmalonyl-CoA decarboxylase may correct a side activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and suggest that its mutation may be involved in the development of certain forms of ethylmalonic aciduria.     

The Class III Cyclobutane Pyrimidine Dimer Photolyase Structure Reveals a New Antenna Chromophore Binding Site and Alternative Photoreduction Pathways

Photolyases are proteins with an FAD chromophore that repair UV-induced pyrimidine dimers on the DNA in a light-dependent manner. The cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer class III photolyases are structurally unknown but closely related to plant cryptochromes, which serve as blue-light photoreceptors. Here we present the crystal structure of a class III photolyase termed photolyase-related protein A (PhrA) of Agrobacterium tumefaciens at 1.67-Å resolution. PhrA contains 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate (MTHF) as an antenna chromophore with a unique binding site and mode. Two Trp residues play pivotal roles for stabilizing MTHF by a double π-stacking sandwich. Plant cryptochrome I forms a pocket at the same site that could accommodate MTHF or a similar molecule. The PhrA structure and mutant studies showed that electrons flow during FAD photoreduction proceeds via two Trp triads. The structural studies on PhrA give a clearer picture on the evolutionary transition from photolyase to photoreceptor.     

Relationship between a Common Variant in the Fatty Acid Desaturase (FADS) Cluster and Eicosanoid Generation in Humans

Dramatic shifts in the Western diet have led to a marked increase in the dietary intake of the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), linoleic acid (LA). Dietary LA can then be converted to arachidonic acid (ARA) utilizing three enzymatic steps. Two of these steps are encoded for by the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) cluster (chromosome 11, 11q12.2-q13) and certain genetic variants within the cluster are highly associated with ARA levels. However, no study to date has examined whether these variants further influence pro-inflammatory, cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase eicosanoid products. This study examined the impact of a highly influential FADS SNP, rs174537 on leukotriene, HETE, prostaglandin, and thromboxane biosynthesis in stimulated whole blood. Thirty subjects were genotyped at rs174537 (GG, n = 11; GT, n = 13; TT, n = 6), a panel of fatty acids from whole serum was analyzed, and precursor-to-product PUFA ratios were calculated as a marker of the capacity of tissues (particularly the liver) to synthesize long chain PUFAs. Eicosanoids produced by stimulated human blood were measured by LC-MS/MS. We observed an association between rs174537 and the ratio of ARA/LA, leukotriene B₄, and 5-HETE but no effect on levels of cyclooxygenase products. Our results suggest that variation at rs174537 not only impacts the synthesis of ARA but the overall capacity of whole blood to synthesize 5-lipoxygenase products; these genotype-related changes in eicosanoid levels could have important implications in a variety of inflammatory diseases.     

LPS impairs phospholipid synthesis by triggering beta-transducin repeat-containing protein (beta-TrCP)-mediated polyubiquitination and degradation of the surfactant enzyme acyl-CoA:lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase I (LPCAT1)

Acyl-CoA:lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 (LPCAT1) is a relatively newly described and yet indispensable enzyme needed for generation of the bioactive surfactant phospholipid, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPtdCho). Here, we show that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) causes LPCAT1 degradation using the Skp1-Cullin-F-box ubiquitin E3 ligase component, β-transducin repeat-containing protein (β-TrCP), that polyubiquitinates LPCAT1, thereby targeting the enzyme for proteasomal degradation. LPCAT1 was identified as a phosphoenzyme as Ser(178) within a phosphodegron was identified as a putative molecular recognition site for glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) phosphorylation that recruits β-TrCP docking within the enzyme. β-TrCP ubiquitinates LPCAT1 at an acceptor site (Lys(221)), as substitution of Lys(221) with Arg abrogated LPCAT1 polyubiquitination. LPS profoundly reduced immunoreactive LPCAT1 levels and impaired lung surfactant mechanics, effects that were overcome by siRNA to β-TrCP and GSK-3β or LPCAT1 gene transfer, respectively. Thus, LPS appears to destabilize the LPCAT1 protein by GSK-3β-mediated phosphorylation within a canonical phosphodegron for β-TrCP docking and site-specific ubiquitination. LPCAT1 is the first lipogenic substrate for β-TrCP, and the results suggest that modulation of the GSK-3β-SCFβ(TrCP) E3 ligase effector pathway might be a unique strategy to optimize dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine levels in sepsis.     

Identification of Amino Acids Conferring Chain Length Substrate Specificities on Fatty Alcohol-forming Reductases FAR5 and FAR8 from Arabidopsis thaliana

Fatty alcohols play a variety of biological roles in all kingdoms of life. Fatty acyl reductase (FAR) enzymes catalyze the reduction of fatty acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) or fatty acyl-acyl carrier protein substrates to primary fatty alcohols. FAR enzymes have distinct substrate specificities with regard to chain length and degree of saturation. FAR5 (At3g44550) and FAR8 (At3g44560) from Arabidopsis thaliana are 85% identical at the amino acid level and are of equal length, but they possess distinct specificities for 18:0 or 16:0 acyl chain length, respectively. We used Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a heterologous expression system to assess FAR substrate specificity determinants. We identified individual amino acids that affect protein levels or 16:0-CoA versus 18:0-CoA specificity by expressing in yeast FAR5 and FAR8 domain-swap chimeras and site-specific mutants. We found that a threonine at position 347 and a serine at position 363 were important for high FAR5 and FAR8 protein accumulation in yeast and thus are likely important for protein folding and stability. Amino acids at positions 355 and 377 were important for dictating 16:0-CoA versus 18:0-CoA chain length specificity. Simultaneously converting alanine 355 and valine 377 of FAR5 to the corresponding FAR8 residues, leucine and methionine, respectively, almost fully converted FAR5 specificity from 18:0-CoA to 16:0-CoA. The reciprocal amino acid conversions, L355A and M377V, made in the active FAR8-S363P mutant background converted its specificity from 16:0-CoA to 18:0-CoA. This study is an important advancement in the engineering of highly active FAR proteins with desired specificities for the production of fatty alcohols with industrial value.     

From Sirtuin Biology to Human Diseases: An Update

Originally rising to notoriety for their role in the regulation of aging, sirtuins are a family of NAD⁺-dependent enzymes that have been connected to a steadily growing set of biological processes. In addition to regulating aging, sirtuins play key roles in the maintenance of organismal metabolic homeostasis. These enzymes also have primarily protective functions in the development of many age-related diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular disease. In this minireview, we provide an update on the known roles for each of the seven mammalian sirtuins in these areas.     

Direct Comparison of Mice Null for Liver or Intestinal Fatty Acid-binding Proteins Reveals Highly Divergent Phenotypic Responses to High Fat Feeding

The enterocyte expresses two fatty acid-binding proteins (FABP), intestinal FABP (IFABP; FABP2) and liver FABP (LFABP; FABP1). LFABP is also expressed in liver. Despite ligand transport and binding differences, it has remained uncertain whether these intestinally coexpressed proteins, which both bind long chain fatty acids (FA), are functionally distinct. Here, we directly compared IFABP^−/− and LFABP^−/− mice fed high fat diets containing long chain saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, reasoning that providing an abundance of dietary lipid would reveal unique functional properties. The results showed that mucosal lipid metabolism was indeed differentially modified, with significant decreases in FA incorporation into triacylglycerol (TG) relative to phospholipid (PL) in IFABP^−/− mice, whereas LFABP^−/− mice had reduced monoacylglycerol incorporation in TG relative to PL, as well as reduced FA oxidation. Interestingly, striking differences were found in whole body energy homeostasis; LFABP^−/− mice fed high fat diets became obese relative to WT, whereas IFABP^−/− mice displayed an opposite, lean phenotype. Fuel utilization followed adiposity, with LFABP^−/− mice preferentially utilizing lipids, and IFABP^−/− mice preferentially metabolizing carbohydrate for energy production. Changes in body weight and fat may arise, in part, from altered food intake; mucosal levels of the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol and arachidonoylethanolamine were elevated in LFABP^−/−, perhaps contributing to increased energy intake. This direct comparison provides evidence that LFABP and IFABP have distinct roles in intestinal lipid metabolism; differential intracellular functions in intestine and in liver, for LFABP^−/− mice, result in divergent downstream effects at the systemic level.     

Dual Functions of the Trans-2-Enoyl-CoA Reductase TER in the Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Metabolic Pathway and in Fatty Acid Elongation

The sphingolipid metabolite sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) functions as a lipid mediator and as a key intermediate of the sole sphingolipid to glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway (S1P metabolic pathway). In this pathway, S1P is converted to palmitoyl-CoA through 4 reactions, then incorporated mainly into glycerophospholipids. Although most of the genes responsible for the S1P metabolic pathway have been identified, the gene encoding the trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, responsible for the saturation step (conversion of trans-2-hexadecenoyl-CoA to palmitoyl-CoA) remains unidentified. In the present study, we show that TER is the missing gene in mammals using analyses involving yeast cells, deleting the TER homolog TSC13, and TER-knockdown HeLa cells. TER is known to be involved in the production of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs). A significant proportion of the saturated and monounsaturated VLCFAs are used for sphingolipid synthesis. Therefore, TER is involved in both the production of VLCFAs used in the fatty acid moiety of sphingolipids as well as in the degradation of the sphingosine moiety of sphingolipids via S1P.