Mapping and characterization of the DQ subregion of the ovine MHC

A map of the ovine MHC class II DQ subregion has been constructed from overlapping cosmid clones. This region consists of two loci linked on a linear tract of 130 kb DNA. Each locus consists of a DQA and a DQB gene in a tail-to-tail orientation. The genes in each locus are transcribed but only those designated DQ1 express class II molecules at the surface of mouse L cells following DNA-mediated gene transfection. The DQA1 and DQB1 genes are separated by 11kb while the DQA2 and B2 genes are 25 kb apart. The loci are separated by 22 kb.     

Gene duplications and sequence polymorphism of bovine class II DQB genes

The genetic diversity of bovine class II DQB genes was investigated by polymerase chain reaction amplification and DNA sequencing. The first domain exon was amplified from genomic DNA samples representing 14 class II haplotypes, defined by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. The presence of a polymorphism in the copy number of DQB genes was confirmed since two DQB sequences were isolated from certain haplotypes. Four subtypes of bovine DQB genes were found. DQB1 is the major type and was found in almost all haplotypes. DQB2 is very similar DQB1 but was found only in the duplicated haplotypes DQ9 to 12. DQB3 and DQB4 are two quite divergent genes only present in certain duplicated haplotypes. The bovine DQB complexity thus resembles that in the human DRB region. Bovine DQB genes were found to be highly polymorphic as ten DQB1 alleles and four DQB2 alleles were identified. The observed sequence polymorphism correlated well with previously defined DQB RFLPs. Bovine and human DQB alleles show striking similarities at the amino acid level. In contrast, the frequency of silent substitutions is much higher in comparisons of DQB alleles between species than within species ruling out the possibility that any of the contemporary DQB alleles have been maintained since the divergence of humans and cattle. The frequency of silent substitutions between DQB alleles was markedly lower in cattle than in humans, in agreement with a previous comparison of human and bovine DRB alleles.     

Evolutionary genetics of MHC class II beta genes in the brown hare, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lepus europaeus</Emphasis>

The genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are attractive candidates for investigating the link between adaptive variation and individual fitness. High levels of diversity at the MHC are thought to be the result of parasite-mediated selection and there is growing evidence to support this theory. Most studies, however, target just a single gene within the MHC and infer any evidence of selection to be representative of the entire gene region. Here we present data from three MHC class II beta genes (DPB, DQB, and DRB) for brown hares in two geographic regions and compare them against previous results from a class II alpha-chain gene (DQA). We report moderate levels of diversity and high levels of population differentiation in the DQB and DRB genes (Na = 11, D _est = 0.071 and Na = 15, D _est = 0.409, respectively), but not for the DPB gene (Na = 4, D _est = 0.00). We also detected evidence of positive selection within the peptide binding region of the DQB and DRB genes (95% CI, ω > 1.0) but found no signature of selection for DPB. Mutation and recombination were both found to be important processes shaping the evolution of the class II genes. Our findings suggest that while diversifying selection is a significant contributor to the generally high levels of MHC diversity, it does not act in a uniform manner across the entire MHC class II region. The beta-chain genes that we have characterized provide a valuable set of MHC class II markers for future studies of the evolution of adaptive variation in Leporids.     

Mapping and nucleotide sequence of a newHLA class II light chain gene,DQB3

A genomic clone specifying a new HLA class II antigen β chain,DQB3, was isolated from a human genomic phage library using aDQB1 cDNA probe under low stringency conditions. Southern hybridization and nucleotide sequence analyses identified the β2 domain exon (exon 3) with several deleterious mutations and the CP-TM-CY exon [connecting peptide, transmembrane, and cytoplasmic regions, (exon 4)], but the first, second, and fifth exons encoding the 5′ UT-leader, the β1 domain, and the 3′ UT domain of normal β chains, respectively, were entirely missing. The nucleotide sequences of these two exons were distinct from those of other class II β chain genes, but slightly more related to theDQB1 andDQB2 genes than to other class II genes. TheDQB3 sequence mapped betweenDQA2 andDQB1, 15 kb upstream fromDQA2, by analysis of overlapping cosmid clones. This mapping was supported by the fact thatTaq I,Msp I, andBam HIDQB3 polymorphisms were perfectly correlated with theDQA2 polymorphism and not with any polymorphisms in theDR orDQ subregion, suggesting the presence of a hot spot for recombination betweenDQB3 andDQB1. The nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank nucleotide sequence database and have been assigned the accession number M26577.     

Polymorphism of the HLA class II loci in Siberian populations

The populations that colonized Siberia diverged from one another in the Paleolithic and evolved in isolation until today. These populations are therefore a rich source of information about the conditions under which the initial divergence of modern humans occurred. In the present study we used the HLA system, first, to investigate the evolution of the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) itself, and second, to reveal the relationships among Siberian populations. We determined allelic frequencies at five HLA class II loci (DRB1, DQA1, DQB1, DPA1, and DPB1) in seven Siberian populations (Ket, Evenk, Koryak, Chukchi, Nivkh, Udege, and Siberian Eskimo) by the combination of single-stranded conformational polymorphism and DNA sequencing analysis. We then used the gene frequency data to deduce the HLA class II haplotypes and their frequencies. Despite high polymorphism at four of the five loci, no new alleles could be detected. This finding is consistent with a conserved evolution of human class II MHC genes. We found a high number of HLA class II haplotypes in Siberian populations. More haplotypes have been found in Siberia than in any other population. Some of the haplotypes are shared with non-Siberian populations, but most of them are new, and some represent “forbidden” combinations of DQA1 and DQB1 alleles. We suggest that a set of “public” haplotypes was brought to Siberia with the colonizers but that most of the new haplotypes were generated in Siberia by recombination and are part of a haplotype pool that is turning over rapidly. The allelic frequencies at the DRB1 locus divide the Siberian populations into eastern and central Siberian branches; only the former shows a clear genealogical relationship to Amerinds. Received: 18 August 1997 / Accepted: 6 October 1997     

Sequence analysis of HLA class II domains: characterization of the DQw3 family of DQB genes

HLA class II allelic variants within the DQw3-related family of genes carry distinct allo-specificities and have been implicated in specific HLA-disease associations, such as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. To investigate the nucleotide variations which characterize DQw3 genes, we applied a novel cDNA cloning strategy that uses a single-stranded vector/primer system to facilitate DNA sequencing of allelically variable gene families. Using a DQB-specific primer sequence and M13 bacteriophage as the cloning vector, direct cloning and sequencing of multiple DQB genes was performed without the need for second strand synthesis or for subcloning. Sequence analysis from eight lymphoblastoid cell lines selected to represent different ethnic backgrounds revealed three DQw3-related DQB genes, DQB3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, corresponding to the newly designated HLA-DQw7, w8, and w9 specificities, respectively. An unusual Pro-Pro couplet at codons 55–56 is characteristic of all DQw3-positive sequences and may be contributing to the broad DQw3 allospecificity. Comparisons among ethnically disparate DQw3-related sequences showed no additional expressed or silent nucleotide substitutions among these DQB alleles. Thus, polymorphism within the DQw3 family of genes appears to be extremely limited, with a paucity of nucleotide variations accumulated by evolutionary distance.     

BTL-II : a polymorphic locus with homology to the butyrophilin gene family, located at the border of the major histocompatibility complex class II and class III regions in human and mouse

 Comparison of human and mouse genomic sequence at the border of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and class III regions revealed a locus encoding six exons with homology to the butyrophilin gene family and the location of a previously decribed gene, testis-specific basic protein (TSBP). We named the new locus BTL-II, for butyrophilin-like MHC class II associated. The six discernable exons of the BTL-II locus encode a small hydrophobic amino acid sequence (which may be a signal peptide), two immunoglobulin domains, a small 7-amino acid, heptad repeat-like exon, and a further two immunoglobulin domains. In mouse, an additional butyrophilin-like gene (NG10) is situated adjacent to BTL-II. Expression studies of the BTL-II locus in mouse showed that it is expressed in a range of gut tissues. We demonstrate that like many other genes from the MHC, BTL-II is polymorphic in a selection of diverse HLA haplotypes. In the light of the newly discovered locus, we revisit and discuss the possible origin of the butyrophilin gene family Received: 20 September 1999 / Revised: 28 December 1999     

Immunoglobulin D (IgD) of Atlantic cod has a unique structure

 A new immunoglobulin heavy-chain gene with some homology to mammalian IgD was recently cloned from the channel catfish and Atlantic salmon, two species of teleost fish. We have cloned and sequenced a new H-chain gene from Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) which has clear similarities to these genes, but which also differs in several ways. The similarities of catfish, salmon, and cod delta to the mammalian delta genes are sequence homology, location immediately downstream of IgM (mu), and expression by alternative splicing rather than class switching. A unique feature of catfish, salmon, and cod delta is the chimeric nature of the gene product, as the μ1 exon is spliced to the δ1 exon. Several unique features of cod IgD were found: (1) a deletion of the δ3, δ4, δ5, and δ6 domains described in catfish and salmon IgD, (2) a tandem duplication of a part of the delta locus including the δ1 and δ2 domains, (3) the presence of a truncated δ7 domain downstream of the δTM exons, and (4) the separation of the duplicated domains by a short exon (δy) which has homology to a conserved part of the transmembrane exon 1 (TM1) of some H-chain isotypes. This unique organization of the delta locus of cod probably developed after the evolutionary split from the catfish and salmon branches. Received: 18 August 1999 / Revised: 28 December 1999     

Haplotypic variation of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) genes and their extension of HLA class II region haplotypes

Stable cell surface presentation of HLA class I molecules requires active transport of antigenic peptides across the endoplasmic reticulum by products of two genes, TAP1 and TAP2, which map in the major histocompatibility complex class II region. Alleles of each gene are derived from a combination of variable sitesaat each locus. In this study, TAP1 and TAP2 alleles were identified in homozygous typing cell (HTC) lines, allowing resolution of specific haplotypes in conjunction with the highly polymorphic HLA class II region haplotypes. Three alleles at each TAP locus were found from which eight haplotypes could be assigned. Determination of TAP1 and TAP2 alleles in cell lines homozygous at DR, DQ, and DP created eight additional haplotypes beyond the number observed with these class II genes alone. Complete analysis of DR, DQ, TAP, and DP genotypes in 66 HTCs resulted in the following groups: 1) 46 homozygotes; 2) nine homozygous at DR, DQ, and TAP, but heterozygous at DP; 3) four homozygous at DR, DQ, and DP, but heterozygous at one or both TAP genes; 4) four homozygous at DR and DQ, but heterozygous at TAP and DP; and 5) three complex genotypes heterozygous at DP, TAP, and at least one of DQA1, DQB1, or DRB1 loci. TAP1 and TAP2 genes map in an area of frequent recombination. TAP alleles were determined in five DQB1, DPB1 recombinant individuals, three of which were informative. Recombination was found between DQB1 and the TAP loci in two individuals and between TAP and DPB1 in the other individual.     

Gene organization of the quail major histocompatibility complex (MhcCoja) class I gene region

 Class I genomic clones of the quail (Coturnix japonica) major histocompatibility complex (MhcCoja) were isolated and characterized. Two clusters spanning the 90.8 kilobase (kb) and 78.2 kb class I gene regions were defined by overlapping cosmid clones and found to contain at least twelve class I loci. However, unlike in the chicken Mhc, no evidence for the existence of any Coja class II gene was obtained in these two clusters. Based on comparative analysis of the genomic sequences with those of the cDNA clones, Coja-A, Coja-B, Coja-C, and Coja-D (Shiina et al. 1999), these twelve loci were assigned to represent one Coja-A gene, two Coja-B genes (Coja-B1 and -B2), four Coja-C genes (Coja-C1-C4), four Coja-D genes (Coja-D1-D4), and one new Coja-E gene. A class I gene-rich segment of 24.6 kb in which five of these genes (Coja-B1, -B2, -D1, -D2 and -E) are densely packed were sequenced by the shotgun strategy. All of these five class I genes are very compact in size [2089 base pairs (bp)–2732 bp] and contain no apparent genetic defect for functional expression. A transporter associated with the antigen processing (TAP) gene was identified in this class I gene-rich segment. These results suggest that the quail class I region is physically separated from the class II region and characterized by a large number of the expressible class I loci (at least seven) in contrast to the chicken Mhc, where the class I and class II regions are not clearly differentiated and only at most three expressed class I loci so far have been recognized. Received: 9 March 1998 / Revised: 12 October 1998     

Characterization of expressed class II MHC sequences in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dipodomys spectabilis</Emphasis>) reveals multiple <Emphasis Type="Italic">DRB</Emphasis> loci

Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are exceptionally polymorphic due to the combined effects of natural and sexual selection. Most research in wild populations has focused on the second exon of a single class II locus (DRB), but complete gene sequences can provide an illuminating backdrop for studies of intragenic selection, recombination, and organization. To this end, we characterized class II loci in the banner-tailed kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spectabilis). Seven DRB-like sequences (provisionally named MhcDisp-DRB*01 through *07) were isolated from spleen cDNA and most likely comprise ≥5 loci; this multiformity is quite unlike the situation in muroid rodents such as Mus, Rattus, and Peromyscus. In silico translation revealed the presence of important structural residues for glycosylation sites, salt bonds, and CD4+ T-cell recognition. Amino-acid distances varied widely among the seven sequences (2–34%). Nuclear DNA sequences from the Disp-DRB*07 locus (∼10 kb) revealed a conventional exon/intron structure as well as a number of microsatellites and short interspersed nuclear elements (B4, Alu, and IDL-Geo subfamilies). Rates of nucleotide substitution at Disp-DRB*07 are similar in both exons and introns (π = 0.015 and 0.012, respectively), which suggests relaxed selection and may indicate that this locus is an expressed pseudogene. Finally, we performed BLASTn searches against Dipodomys ordii genomic sequences (unassembled reads) and find 90–97% nucleotide similarity between the two kangaroo rat species. Collectively, these data suggest that class II diversity in heteromyid rodents is based on polylocism and departs from the muroid architecture. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Nucleotide sequence data reported are available in the DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank databases under the accession numbers EU817477–EU817485.     

Allelic and haplotype variation of major histocompatibility complex class II DRB1 and DQB loci in the St Lawrence beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)

In order to assess levels of major histocompatibility complex (Mhc) variation within the St Lawrence beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) the variation at the beluga Mhc DRB1 class II locus was assessed by single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis of the peptide-binding region for 313 whales collected from 13 sampling locations across North America. In addition, samples from west Greenland and the St Lawrence were also typed at the DQB locus, allowing comparison to a previous study and assessment of linkage disequilibrium of alleles at the two loci. Comparisons of DRB1 and DQB allele frequencies among all sampling locations indicated genetic structure (α < 0.005). Most of this structure resulted from differences between the different wintering groups. Significant genetic structure (α = 0.05) exists among each pair of the following groups at both the DRB1 and DQB loci; St Lawrence, Hudson Strait, Bering Sea, Cunningham Inlet, and Davis Strait (minus Cunningham Inlet), except the St Lawrence and Hudson Strait for the DQB locus. In the St Lawrence population, six of the eight DRB1 alleles are present representing all five known allelic lineages. Evidence of linkage disequilibrium between the DRB1 and DQB is present in two sampling locations, the St Lawrence and Nuussuaq (α = 0.05). Analysis of probable DRB1–DQB haplotypes among groups of beluga suggests a haplotype reduction in the St Lawrence.     

Conditional meta-analysis stratifying on detailed HLA genotypes identifies a novel type 1 diabetes locus around <Emphasis Type="Italic">TCF19</Emphasis> in the MHC

The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II genes HLA-DRB1, -DQA1 and -DQB1 are the strongest genetic factors for type 1 diabetes (T1D). Additional loci in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are difficult to identify due to the region’s high gene density and complex linkage disequilibrium (LD). To facilitate the association analysis, two novel algorithms were implemented in this study: one for phasing the multi-allelic HLA genotypes in trio families, and one for partitioning the HLA strata in conditional testing. Screening and replication were performed on two large and independent datasets: the Wellcome Trust Case–Control Consortium (WTCCC) dataset of 2,000 cases and 1,504 controls, and the T1D Genetics Consortium (T1DGC) dataset of 2,300 nuclear families. After imputation, the two datasets have 1,941 common SNPs in the MHC, of which 22 were successfully tested and replicated based on the statistical testing stratifying on the detailed DRB1 and DQB1 genotypes. Further conditional tests using the combined dataset confirmed eight novel SNP associations around 31.3 Mb on chromosome 6 (rs3094663, p = 1.66 × 10⁻¹¹ and rs2523619, p = 2.77 × 10⁻¹⁰ conditional on the DR/DQ genotypes). A subsequent LD analysis established TCF19, POU5F1, CCHCR1 and PSORS1C1 as potential causal genes for the observed association.     

Allelic diversity at class II DRB1 and DQB loci of the pig MHC (SLA)

 The loci encoding the β chain of the pig major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens, SLA-DR and -DQ, have been known to exhibit a remarkable degree of allelic polymorphism. Here, to understand the generation of SLA class II polymorphism, 25 SLA-DRB1 and 24 SLA-DQB genes including newly identified 12 SLA-DRB1 and 7 SLA-DQB genes obtained from miniature pigs were analyzed based on the nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences. Most of the allelic diversity was attributed to the variable sequences which encode a β₁ domain consisting of a β-pleated sheet followed by an α helix. In the β₁ domain coding region, there were four GC-rich sequences, which have been considered to involve the intra-exon sequence exchange also in other gene evolutions. The first and second GC-rich sequences were χ-like sequences, which have been shown to be a putative recombination signal, and were stably conserved among SLA-DRB1 and DQB genes. These χ-like sequences identified in SLA-DRB1 and SLA-DQB were found to encode the first turning point of the β-pleated sheet and the boundary between the β-pleated sheet and the α helix. Analysis of clustered sequence variation also suggested intra-exon gene conversions in which the χ-like sequences act as putative breakpoints. In addition to point mutations and selection mechanism, intra-exon gene conversions must be an important mechanism in the generation of allelic polymorphism at the SLA-DRB1 and SLA-DQB. Received: 3 December 1998 / Revised: 29 June 1999     

Detection of novel sequence heterogeneity and haplotypic diversity of HLA class II genes

Nucleic acid sequences of the second exons of HLA-DRB1, –DRB3/4/5, –DQB1, and –DQA1 genes were determined from 43 homozygous cell lines, representing each of the known class II haplotypes, and from 30 unrelated Caucasian subjects, comprising 60 haplotypes. This systematic sequence analysis was undertaken in order to a) determine the existence of sequence microheterogeneity among cell lines which type as identical by methods other than sequencing; b) determine whether direct sequencing of class II genes will identify the presence of more extensive sequence polymorphism at the population level than that identified with other typing methods; c) accurately determine the molecular composition of the known class II haplotypes; and d) study their evolutionary relatedness by maximum parsimony analysis. The identification of seven previously unidentified haplotypes carrying five new allelic amino acid sequences suggests that sequence microheterogeneity at the population level may be more frequent than previously thought. Maximum parsimony analysis of these haplotypes allowed their evolutionary classification and indicates that the higher mutation rate at DRB1 compared to DQB1 loci in most haplotypic groups is inversed in specific haplotype lineages. Furthermore, the extent and localization of gene conversions and point mutations at class II loci in the evolution of these haplotypes is significantly different at each locus. Identification of additional HLA class II molecular microheterogeneity suggests that direct sequence analysis of class II HLA genes can uncover new allelic sequences in the population and may represent a useful alternative to current typing methodologies to study the effects of sequence allelism in organ transplantation.The nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank nucleotide sequence database and have been assigned the accession numbers M35890 through M35953.     

Study of the HLA class II allele polymorphism and phylogenetic analysis in Vojvodina population

The polymorphism at the HLA DRB1 and DQB1 loci in the population of Vojvodina was studied by PCR-SSP method. A total of 13 DRB1 and 5 DQB1 specificities displaying population-specific frequency distribution pattern were described. The most frequent HLA Class II alleles in Vojvodina population were: HLA-DRB1*11 (af = 0.30), −DRB1*04 (af = 0.28), −DRB1*07 (af = 0.21), −DRB1*13 and −DRB1*16 (af = 0.18), −DQB1*03 (af = 0.64), −DQB1*05 (af = 0.39) and −DQB1*02 (af = 0.35). The haplotypes with high frequencies (≥0.02) included HLA DRB1*11 DQB1*03 (0.0825), DRB1*04DQB1*03 (0.0725), DRB1*07DQB1*02 (0.0475). The allele DRB1*07 showed the strongest association with DQB1*02 (Δ = 0.0261, gC² = 4.437) and DRB1*13 allele with DQB1*06 (Δ = 0.0222, gC² = 4.247). The allelic frequencies and populations distance dendrogram revealed the closest relationship of Vojvodina population with Hungarians, Croat, and Greeks which can be the result of turbulent migration within this region and admixture with neighbour populations during the history.     

Sequence variability analysis on major histocompatibility complex class II DRB alleles in three felines

The variation of the exon 2 of the major histo-compatibility complex (MHC) class II gene DRB locus in three feline species were examined on clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), leopard (Panthera pardus) and Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica). A pair of degenerated primers was used to amplify DRB locus covering almost the whole exon 2. Exon 2 encodes the β1 domain which is the most variable fragments of the MHC class II molecule. Single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis was applied to detect different MHC class II DRB haplotypes. Fifteen recombinant plasmids for each individual were screened out, isolated, purified and sequenced finally. Totally eight distinct haplotypes of exon 2 were obtained in four individuals. Within 237 bp nucleotide sequences from four samples, 30 variable positions were found, and 21 putative peptide-binding positions were disclosed in 79 amino acid residues. The ratio of nonsynonymous substitutions (d _N ) was much higher than that of synonymous substitutions (d _S ), which indicated that balancing selection probably maintain the variation of exon 2. MEGA neighbor joining (NJ) and PAUP maximum parsimony (MP) methods were used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees among species, respectively. Results displayed a more close relationship between leopard and tiger; however, clouded leopard has a comparatively distant relationship form the other two. __________ Translated from Zoological Research, 2006, 27(2): 181-C188 [译自:动物学研究]     

Characterization of Bison bison major histocompatibility complex class IIa haplotypes

American bison (Bison bison) and domestic cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) evolved from a common ancestor 1–1.4 million years ago. Nevertheless, they show dramatic differences in their susceptibility to infectious diseases, including malignant catarrhal fever (MCF). Although bison are highly susceptible to ovine herpesvirus-2 (OvHV-2) associated MCF, about 20% of healthy domesticated and wild bison are positive for OvHV-2 antibody. We are interested in testing the hypothesis that, within the bison population, the polymorphism of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes influences resistance to MCF. However, since little was known about the MHC class II genes of bison, it was necessary to first characterize class II haplotypes present in Bi. bison (Bibi). Thus, the MHC class II haplotypes carried by 14 bison were characterized by the PCR-based cloning and sequencing of their DRB3, DQA, and DQB alleles. Twelve MHC class II haplotypes were identified in the 14 bison. These haplotypes comprised six previously reported and six new Bibi-DRB3 alleles, along with 11 Bibi-DQA and 10 Bibi-DQB alleles. For each bison class II allele, it was possible to identify closely related cattle sequences. The closest bison and bovine DQA, DQB, and DRB3 alleles, on average, differed by only 1.3, 3.5, and 5.8 amino acids, respectively. Furthermore, bison MHC haplotypes with both nonduplicated and duplicated DQ genes were identified; these haplotypes appear to have originated from the same ancestral haplotypes as orthologous cattle haplotypes. This study was supported by USDA-Agricultural Research Service grant CWU-5348-32000-018-00D. While working on this project, Dr. Bharat Bhushan was supported by a fellowship from the World-Bank-sponsored National Agricultural Technology Project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Indian Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, India