Habitat preferences of the secretive forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) in Central Africa

The forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus is one of the three subspecies of African buffalo inhabiting the rainforests of Western and Central Africa. Because of its secretive behaviour and main habitat (dense rainforests), there is little quantitative information on the habitat preferences of this buffalo. We present here the first data on the frequencies of this species along a habitat gradient ranging from clearings and rivers to forests, as well as the characteristics of the buffalo's resting places. We recorded information from a buffalo herd during the period January 2002–January 2004 in the Bai-Hokou area (Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic). Resting places were firstly compared with available habitat (i.e. resting vs. random sites) and, successively, comparisons were made between diurnal versus nocturnal and wet versus dry season resting places. Forest buffalos were found to be highly dependent on clearings, as well as on the more open forest stands, characterized by large trees and open canopy. Such preferences could be due to the tendency of the buffalos to rest all together; open patches are likely to facilitate social interactions between the members of the herd.     

Nest covering in plovers: How modifying the visual environment influences egg camouflage

Camouflage is one of the most widespread antipredator defences, and its mechanistic basis has attracted considerable interest in recent years. The effectiveness of camouflage depends on the interaction between an animal's appearance and its background. Concealment can therefore be improved by changes to an animal's own appearance, by behaviorally selecting an optimal background, or by modifying the background to better match the animal's own appearance. Research to date has largely focussed on the first of these mechanisms, whereas there has been little work on the second and almost none on the third. Even though a number of animal species may potentially modify their environment to improve individual‐specific camouflage, this has rarely if ever been quantitatively investigated, or its adaptive value tested. Kittlitz's plovers (Charadrius pecuarius) use material (stones and vegetation) to cover their nests when predators approach, providing concealment that is independent of the inflexible appearance of the adult or eggs, and that can be adjusted to suit the local surrounding background. We used digital imaging and predator vision modeling to investigate the camouflage properties of covered nests, and whether their camouflage affected their survival. The plovers' nest‐covering materials were consistent with a trade‐off between selecting materials that matched the color of the eggs, while resulting in poorer nest pattern and contrast matching to the nest surroundings. Alternatively, the systematic use of materials with high‐contrast and small‐pattern grain sizes could reflect a deliberate disruptive coloration strategy, whereby high‐contrast material breaks up the telltale outline of the clutch. No camouflage variables predicted nest survival. Our study highlights the potential for camouflage to be enhanced by background modification. This provides a flexible system for modifying an animal's conspicuousness, to which the main limitation may be the available materials rather than the animal's appearance.     

Behavioral patterns of domestic sheep and their relationship to coyote predation

Activity patterns between individuals in a large herd of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) were examined to determine whether or not behavioral characteristics predisposed certain individuals to coyote (Canis latrans) predation. Coyotes killed 73 of 958 lambs and 6 of 624 ewes between 24 April and 15 August 1975. Twenty ewes and 19 lambs died from non-predatory causes. Coyote-kills accounted for 79.3% of the lamb losses. The amount of time ewes spent at various activities differed significantly by age or genotype, but the behavior of ewes whose lambs were killed was remarkably similar to that of other ewes. Single lambs were more active and were killed proportionately more often than twins. Within litters in which one of the lambs was killed, the killed sibling tended to be more active. Coyotes killed proportionately more disabled lambs and lambs from disabled ewes than healthy lambs or lambs from healthy ewes. Reduced mobility of either a lamb or a ewe increased the probability of a lamb's being on the periphery of the bed-ground and, hence, the probability that it would be noticed and attacked by a coyote. Coyote predation on domestic sheep was related more to the chance of an animal's being on the periphery of the bed-ground than to the animal's behavioral characteristics.     

Spatial selection in captive adult female chimpanzees

Spatial selection refers to an animal's frequent use of certain areas of its enclosure or range. Through differential use of habitat, an individual can limit the amount of time spent in close proximity to other group members. The four adult female chimpanzees at the Tulsa Zoo were studied to determine if they used their enclosure differently from one another, if each had selected areas it occupied most frequently, and if an individual's preferred area was used by other female group members. Pairwise comparisons showed that the females used their island habitat differently from one another with the exception of one pair. Although these two females overlapped in their use of the enclosure, they separated their use temporally, thereby reducing the amount of time spent in close proximity to one another. Each female had a selected site that she occupied more frequently than did the other females. However, there was variation in the extent to which the females occupied each other's selected sites. Time of day and temperature had no effect on use of the habitat, however, one female showed a seasonal variation in her use of the enclosure. The spatial selection exhibited by these females may be comparable to the use of core areas by wild female chimpanzees. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Systematic Investigation of the Stability of Food Preferences in Captive Orangutans: Implications for Positive Reinforcement Training

Using preference-assessment tests with humans in conjunction with behavioral modification sessions has been a regular component of almost all operant conditioning programs with mentally challenged humans. This has been very effective in improving the efficiency of behavioral training in these settings and could be similarly effective in zoological and research environments. This study investigated the preferences of 9 captive orangutans for different food items. The study used a pairwise presentation to record each nonhuman animal's preferences for 5 different foods on 6 different occasions over the course of 6 months. Results of a Friedman's 2-way ANOVA indicated that the orangutans showed a clear overall preference for apple. However, there was significant variability among different orangutans in preference ranking for the 5 foods, as shown by a Kendall's tau. In addition, there was variability in preference rankings across time for each orangutan. Because the orangutans' preferences change over time and vary according to individual, regular assessments should identify items to be used as rewards in behavioral husbandry training or as part of feeding enrichment strategies.     

Field data confirm the ability of a biophysical model to predict wild primate body temperature

In the face of climate change there is an urgent need to understand how animal performance is affected by environmental conditions. Biophysical models that use principles of heat and mass transfer can be used to explore how an animal's morphology, physiology, and behavior interact with its environment in terms of energy, mass and water balances to affect fitness and performance. We used Niche Mapper™ (NM) to build a vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) biophysical model and tested the model's ability to predict core body temperature (T_b) variation and thermal stress against T_b and behavioral data collected from wild vervets in South Africa. The mean observed T_b in both males and females was within 0.5 °C of NM's predicted T_bs for 91% of hours over the five-year study period. This is the first time that NM's T_b predictions have been validated against field data from a wild endotherm. Overall, these results provide confidence that NM can accurately predict thermal stress and can be used to provide insight into the thermoregulatory consequences of morphological (e.g., body size, shape, fur depth), physiological (e.g. T_b plasticity) and behavioral (e.g., huddling, resting, shade seeking) adaptations. Such an approach allows users to test hypotheses about how animals adapt to thermoregulatory challenges and make informed predictions about potential responses to environmental change such as climate change or habitat conversion. Importantly, NM's animal submodel is a general model that can be adapted to other species, requiring only basic information on an animal's morphology, physiology and behavior.     

A seasnake's colour affects its susceptibility to algal fouling

Evolutionary transitions from terrestrial to aquatic life modify selective forces on an animal''s coloration. For example, light penetrates differently through water than air, and a new suite of predators and visual backgrounds changes the targets of selection. We suggest that an aquatic animal''s coloration may also affect its susceptibility to algal fouling. In a colour-polymorphic field population of seasnakes (Emydocephalus annulatus) in New Caledonia, black individuals supported higher algal cover than did banded conspecifics. In experimental tests, black snake models (plastic tubes) accumulated more algae than did banded models. Algal cover substantially reduced snake activity (in the field) and swimming speeds (in the laboratory). Effects of algal cover on a snake''s hydrodynamic efficiency and/or its rate of cutaneous gas exchange thus may impose selection on the colours of aquatic organisms.     

Physical Attractiveness of an Animal Species as a Decision Factor for its Preservation

ABSTRACT

This experimental study examines how framing an animal species as endangered affects its perceived attractiveness and how an animal's perceived attractiveness affects support for its conservation. Undergraduate students were shown a flyer from a fictitious environmental organization pleading for the protection of either a bat or an ape. The flyer contained either no picture, a picture of an attractive member of its species, or a picture of an unattractive member of its species. For both species, an animal's attractiveness substantially increased support for its protection. There was also more support for saving the species that was larger in size and more resembled humans. In a second experiment, participants rated an unattractive animal as more attractive if it was framed as endangered. There was no such effect for an animal originally perceived as attractive. The implications of the results for environmental policy and conservation support are discussed.     

Troop-specific responses to long calls of isolated tamarins (Saguinus mystax)

Recently captured moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) were briefly separated from other members of their troop. Most separated animals emitted long calls that were, in general, similar in acoustic structure to those of sympatric tamarin species while retaining species distinctiveness. Individual differences also appeared in call structure. The long calls of a separated animal were responded to almost entirely by members of the animal's own troop rather than by other troops, and reciprocal calling occurred among troop members significantly more often than expected by chance. Although there was no evidence of troop-specific call structure or dialect, there were troop-specific responses to the calls of separated tamarins. This response implies the existence of a stable and integrated troop structure that allows troop members to learn and to respond to the individual specific features of each troop member's calls.     

Are British urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) “bold”? The importance of understanding human–wildlife interactions in urban areas

Human–wildlife interactions are believed to be increasing in urban areas. In Britain, numerous media reports have stated that urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are becoming “bolder,” thereby posing a risk to public safety. However, such claims overlook how an individual''s personality might influence urban fox behavior. Personality determines multiple aspects of an animal''s interactions with both conspecifics and its environment, and can have a significant impact on how people perceive wildlife. Furthermore, describing urban foxes as “bold” confounds two different but inter‐related behaviors, both of which influence an animal''s propensity to take risks. Neophobia affects an animal''s reaction to novelty, wariness its reaction to potential threats. Since urban wildlife frequently encounters both novel and threatening stimuli, a highly adaptable species such as the red fox might be predicted to exhibit reduced neophobia and wariness. We investigated how social status influenced both behaviors in Bristol''s fox population. Dominant foxes were significantly more neophobic and warier than subordinates, which adopt a more exploratory and risk‐taking lifestyle to meet their energetic and other needs. We found no seasonal effect on neophobia and wariness, although this may be due to sample size. The presence of conspecifics decreased neophobia for dominants, and wariness for both dominants and subordinates. We highlight the importance of considering animal social status and personality when planning management protocols, since interventions that destabilize fox social groups are likely to increase the number of subordinate foxes in the population, thereby increasing rather than decreasing the number of interactions between humans and urban foxes.     

Changes in Postural Syntax Characterize Sensory Modulation and Natural Variation of C. elegans Locomotion

Locomotion is driven by shape changes coordinated by the nervous system through time; thus, enumerating an animal''s complete repertoire of shape transitions would provide a basis for a comprehensive understanding of locomotor behaviour. Here we introduce a discrete representation of behaviour in the nematode C. elegans. At each point in time, the worm’s posture is approximated by its closest matching template from a set of 90 postures and locomotion is represented as sequences of postures. The frequency distribution of postural sequences is heavy-tailed with a core of frequent behaviours and a much larger set of rarely used behaviours. Responses to optogenetic and environmental stimuli can be quantified as changes in postural syntax: worms show different preferences for different sequences of postures drawn from the same set of templates. A discrete representation of behaviour will enable the use of methods developed for other kinds of discrete data in bioinformatics and language processing to be harnessed for the study of behaviour.     

Rating vs. coding in animal personality research

Animal personality research has become increasingly popular over the past few decades. The two main methods used to examine individual differences in animals are rating and coding. The rating method involves human scoring of an animal's behavioral tendencies along various behavioral dimensions, such ratings are typically based on the human rater's experience with the animal. The coding method also requires humans to score an animal's behavior, but differs in that the scoring is based on the animal's immediate behavior in a specific context. This brief report describes the use of both the rating and coding methods to examine personality within a group of 10 Garnett's bushbabies (Otolemur garnettii). The results indicated that individual personalities do exist in bushbabies, but also suggested that the rating method is heavily influenced by the rater's experience with an animal. Consequently, it is important that the nature of the rater's interactions with the target animals be considered when using the rating method to assess animal personality. Zoo Biol 29:509–516, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Action anticipation in human infants reveals assumptions about anteroposterior body-structure and action

Animal actions are almost universally constrained by the bilateral body-plan. For example, the direction of travel tends to be constrained by the orientation of the animal''s anteroposterior axis. Hence, an animal''s behaviour can reliably guide the identification of its front and back, and its orientation can reliably guide action prediction. We examine the hypothesis that the evolutionarily ancient relation between anteroposterior body-structure and behaviour guides our cognitive processing of agents and their actions. In a series of studies, we demonstrate that, after limited exposure, human infants as young as six months of age spontaneously encode a novel agent as having a certain axial direction with respect to its actions and rely on it when anticipating the agent''s further behaviour. We found that such encoding is restricted to objects exhibiting cues of agency and does not depend on generalization from features of familiar animals. Our research offers a new tool for investigating the perception of animate agency and supports the proposal that the underlying cognitive mechanisms have been shaped by basic biological adaptations in humans.     

Comparison of video recording and a portable electronic device for measuring the feeding behaviour of individually housed dairy goats

A detailed knowledge of chewing behaviour is important in understanding the factors that can affect digestive function in high producing ruminants. The aim of this study was to compare chewing behaviour either measured with a portable automatic system (APEC) which records jaw movements or obtained by scan sampling video analysis in 12 individually housed dairy goats. One hour and daily time-intervals were used for the analysis. APEC and video showed better agreement for 1 h than for daily time-intervals but a very high individual variability was observed for all the parameters measured. Daily duration of rumination seemed to be assessed better by the APEC than by the video because it is sometimes difficult to determine if the goats are resting or ruminating on the video. Daily duration of intake was however assessed better by the video because the automatic recorder interpreted all oral behaviours as intake. However, total chewing time is directly related to the amount of saliva produced which an important factor in ruminant nutrition. The APEC allows continuous recording of activity independently of the animal's position in the pen or in a group or at pasture where animals cannot be filmed, however the device can be easily damaged by the animals. Video cannot be damaged by the animals but it can be difficult to determine the animal's activity if the animal is lying-down or not facing the camera, or in a dark part of its pen. Both systems were relevant to measure chewing behaviour of stall housed dairy goats, and to study the daily time-budget of feeding behaviour but results have to be interpreted carefully.     

Analysing qualitative behavioural data: A Markov chain aid

Redundancy of information is liable to be present in successive observations of an animal's behaviour. This redundancy can be tested for, and its effects studied, with a statistical procedure, Markov chain analysis. Efficient sampling frequency and the precision of estimators are both found to be affected by the redundancy present in one typical data set based on video-taped records of a nursing sow. A method of selecting sampling frequencies for observations is described.     

Ontogeny of the Locomotor Activity Rhythm in the Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

The ontogeny of locomotor activity rhythm in the common marmoset was studied in three animals, observed during infant and juvenile stages, and in adult age. Animals were kept with their families in outdoor cages under natural temperature, humidity and light cycles. Data were collected from sunrise to sunset, three consecutive days a week, at 5 min intervals randomly distributed in the clock hours, and were recorded as the total of arbitrary cage sections traveled by the animal each interval. Animal 3 was observed continuously one day a week in order to detect less than 2 h period harmonic components. Animals' weekly data series were analyzed by Fourier analysis and Siegel's test to detect significant harmonic components. Results showed a main 24 h period com ponent for all records and a secondary 8 h period component in at least 34% of animal's week data series. The power content of the 24 h component showed an increase with age, reaching some stability near the 16th week of life suggesting that this component is mature at the end of the animal's infant stage. However, for the 8 h component an oscillating pattern was observed following the environmental annual temperature cycle; this may indicate a seasonal modulation of daily locomotor activity profiles.     

Public perceptions of behavioral enrichment: Assumptions gone awry

More and more, zoos are integrating behavioral enrichment programs into their management routines. Given the newness of such programs on an official level, however, there are an increasing number of enrichment decisions based on assumption. Enrichment is typically not provided on exhibit, especially for exhibits considered to be more naturalistic, because it is assumed to affect visitors' experience negatively. To test that assumption, visitors were interviewed in front of four exhibits—an outdoor barren grotto, an outdoor vegetated grotto, an indoor immersion exhibit, and an outdoor traditional cage—each with either natural, nonnatural or no enrichment objects present. Specifically, we wanted to know whether (1) the exhibit's perceived educational message, (2) the animal's perceived “happiness,” and (3) the visitor perceptions of enrichment, the naturalism of animal's behavior, and zoo animal well-being changed as a function of object type. Overall, the type of enrichment object had little impact on visitor perceptions. In the outdoor barren grotto, only visitor perceptions of exhibit naturalism were affected by object type. In the outdoor vegetated grotto, object type influenced visitors perceptions of enrichment and exhibit naturalism. For the indoor immersion exhibit, general perceptions of enrichment and the perceived naturalism of the animal's behavior were affected. Finally, in the outdoor traditional cage, perceived educational message and general perceptions of enrichment changed as a function of object type. Zoo Biol 17:525–534, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Aggressive behavior and dominance hierarchies in female sable antelope,Hippotragus niger: Implications for captive management

Social interactions of adult female sable antelope, Hippotragus niger, were observed at the National Zoological Park's Conservation and Research Center. Aggressive behavior was quantified for two herds containing 8 and 11 females. Aggression was lowest at calving, and highest near the time of conception. Dominance hierarchies were strictly linear and stable over time. Dominance rank was highly correlated with age, with the oldest females achieving highest rank. High-ranking females initiated more aggression and were more likely to behave aggressively towards a newly introduced adult female. The newly introduced individual was the victim of prolonged, intense group chases and was permanently excluded from the herd. Low-ranking females directed more aggression at yearling herd members than did high-ranking females. Temporary absences by herd members resulted in long-lasting, substantial increases in received aggression upon their return. Because of their aggressive nature, sable antelope present a challenge to captive management. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The ability to locate a source of vibrations as a prey‐capture mechanism in Harmothoë imbricata (Annelida Polychaeta)

Harmothoë imbricata is able to locate sources of vibration in the water and this response is an important part of the animal's prey‐capture mechanism. Animals having either palps, tentacular cirri, dorsal cirri or ventral cirri intact are able to locate a source of vibrations successfully. If none of these types of sensory appendage remain intact then the animals are unresponsive until regeneration of the appendages has occurred. The structure of the sensory appendages and the types of sensory endings which they carry have been described. After an object has been located there is a period of contact exploration by the animal's palps. The palps provide the animal with chemical information as to whether the object is suitable as prey and also about its exact position relative to the animal. Attack involves the rapid eversion of the proboscis which has four terminal jaws. The vibration source location response disappears after an animal has fed to satiation.     

Real-time visual/near-infrared analysis of milk-clotting parameters for industrial applications

The economical profitability of the dairy industry is based on the quality of the bulk milk collected in the farms, therefore it was based on the herd level rather than on the individual animals at real time. Udder infection and stage of lactation are directly related to the quality of milk produced on the herd level. However, improvement of milk quality requires testing each animal's milk separately and continuously. Recently, it was postulated that online equipment can estimate milk quality according to its clotting parameters, and thus result in better economical return for cheese making. This study further investigated the potential application of the AfiLab™ equipment to provide real-time analysis of milk-clotting parameters for cheese manufacture and cheese yield on quarter (1018) and individual cow (277) levels. Days in milk, lactose, log SCC and udder infection were found to have a significant effect on curd firmness and cheese properties and yield. The results clearly indicate that: (a) the parameter Afi-CF determined with the AfiLab™ is suitable for assessing milk quality for its clotting parameters, a value which is not provided by merely measuring fat and protein content on the gland and the cow levels; (b) bacterial type is the single major cause of reduced milk quality, with variations depending on the bacterial species; and (c) early and late lactation also had negative effects on milk-clotting parameters. Cheese made from the various milk samples that were determined by the Afilab™ to be of higher quality for cheese making resulted in higher yield and better texture, which were related mainly to the bacterial species and stage of lactation.