Neuronal differentiation in cultures of weaver (wv) mutant mouse cerebellum

In the present study we report for the first time a weaver (wv) gene dose effect on neuron survival and neurite formation in vitro. Dissociated cerebellar cells from postnatal 7- and 8-day-old normal ( + / + ), heterozygous weaver ( + /wv) and homozygous weaver (wv/wv) mice were cultured as monolayers on poly-L-lysine coated glass. Cell death occurred rapidly in wv/wv cultures. Cell counts showed that less than 20% of the total neurons and neuronal precursors (identified by “birthday” radiolabeling techniques) survived by Day 3. Cell death was less extensive in + /wv cultures with 65% of the total neurons and 80% of the precursors surviving by Day 3. In contrast to wv/wv cultures, younger neurons survive better than the total population in + /wv cultures. The impairment of neurite formation over the first week is also proportional to the number of mutant genes as shown by quantitation of (a) the percentage of cells with neurites; (b) the percentage of cells with neurites of a given length class with time; (c) the lengths of the longest processes formed per cell. The mean longest neurite lengths obtained by computer digitization at 6 days in vitro were 41.8, 26.8, and 9.0 μm for + / +, + /wv, and wv/wv granule cells, respectively.     

Overlapping functions of the cell adhesion molecules Nr-CAM and L1 in cerebellar granule cell development

The structurally related cell adhesion molecules L1 and Nr-CAM have overlapping expression patterns in cerebellar granule cells. Here we analyzed their involvement in granule cell development using mutant mice. Nr-CAM-deficient cerebellar granule cells failed to extend neurites in vitro on contactin, a known ligand for Nr-CAM expressed in the cerebellum, confirming that these mice are functionally null for Nr-CAM. In vivo, Nr-CAM-null cerebella did not exhibit obvious histological defects, although a mild size reduction of several lobes was observed, most notably lobes IV and V in the vermis. Mice deficient for both L1 and Nr-CAM exhibited severe cerebellar folial defects and a reduction in the thickness of the inner granule cell layer. Additionally, anti-L1 antibodies specifically disrupted survival and maintenance of Nr-CAM-deficient granule cells in cerebellar cultures treated with antibodies. The combined results indicate that Nr-CAM and L1 play a role in cerebellar granule cell development, and suggest that closely related molecules in the L1 family have overlapping functions.     

The weaver mutant mouse as a model of nigrostriatal dysfunction

The weaver mutant mouse has a genetic defect that results in the loss of dopamine neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway. Striatal tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine content are reduced by 60–70%, and dopamine uptake is reduced by as much as 95%. Deficits in all three of these striatal dopamine markers are seen as early as postnatal d 3. The striatal dopamine systems in the weaver apparently have the ability to compensate for this dopamine deficit. Thus, in the weaver, in vitro resting release, as well as amphetamine-evoked fractional release of endogenous dopamine are increased. An additional change seen in the weaver striatum is an elevated serotonin content. These alterations may play an adaptive role in attempting to compensate for the dopamine loss. In summary, the weaver mutant mouse has dramatic deficits in the nigrostriatal pathway, but also seems to develop certain adaptive mechanisms in dopaminergic and other transmitter systems that may compensate functionally for the dopamine deficit. Thus, the weaver mouse provides a unique animal model for studying naturally induced neuronal degeneration that complements those models using surgical and pharmacological protocols.     

Studies on the striatal dopamine uptake system of weaver mutant mice and effects of ventral mesencephalic grafts

The dopamine (DA) uptake system was investigated in the mesostriatal system of normal and weaver mutant mice, which lose mesencephalic DA neurons, as well as in weaver mutants with ventral mesencephalic grafts to the striatum. Assays of [³H]DA uptake in striatal synaptosomal fractions in vitro and autoradiography of [³H]mazindol binding in brain sections were carried out in wild-type mice (+/+) and in the two hemispheres of homozygous weaver mutants (wv/wv) that had received unilateral grafts of mesencephalic cell suspensions to the right side. Net [³H]DA uptake, expressed as pmol/mg-protein/2-min, was on the average 50.6 in the striatum of wild-type mice, 7.9 in the non-grafted, and 10.1 in the transplanted striatum of weaver mutants. [³]DA uptake in wild-type mice differed significantly from both the grafted and non-grafted weaver striata (P<0.001). Paired comparisons for [³H]DA uptake between right and left sides of recipient weaver mice showed a significant side effect (P<0.02), the right side being 28–38% higher than the left side [mean of all individual (R-L)/L values]. The results of amphetamine-induced turning behavior tests were compared with the biochemical findings. Mice with grafts to the right side rotated an average of 22 turns to the left and 7 turns to the right during the five one-minute sessions; the mean value L/(L+R) was 64%. A plot of (L-R) rotations against (R-L) [³H]DA uptake gave a correlation coefficient of 0.552 (P<0.05), indicating that animals with a strong rotational bias to the left tended to have higher [³H]DA on the right. Similarly, the animals that were used for [³H]mazindol binding autoradiographic studies displayed on the average 72% rotations to the left side. In the [³H]mazindol binding data, non-grafted weaver mutants showed the severest depletion relative to wild-type in the dorsomedial and dorsolateral caudate-putamen (86% and 87%, respectively). Mice with unilateral grafts to the right side showed an increase in [³H]mazindol binding signal in the transplanted side of 40–64% (depending on dorsoventral topography) over the contralateral, non-grafted side. These findings attest to the functional effects of the grafts at the anatomical, biochemical, and behavioral levels. The parallel measurements of motor performance and DA uptake in the same animals offers an index of behavioral recovery as a function of transmitter-related activity. Furthermore, by conducting measurements of the synaptosomal DA uptake in vitro and of the binding characteristics of mazindol in brain slices by autoradiography, one has the advantage of combining the anatomical resolution of uptake site visualization with a dynamic indicator of function for DA uptake in the nerve terminal.Special issue dedicated to Professor Sidney Ochs     

Acetylcholinesterase level and molecular isoforms are altered in brain of Reelin Orleans mutant mice

In this study we examined changes in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) pattern in the brain of adult Reelin Orleans (RelnOrl) homozygous mutant mice. The AChE histochemistry firstly revealed an abnormal distribution of AChE-positive cells in several areas of the reeler brain, including cortices; the strongest labelling was observed in cerebellum and hippocampus when compared with controls. Biochemical determinations demonstrated an increase of 80-90% in AChE specific activity from cerebellar and hippocampal extracts. We also report that the AChE tetrameric form (G4) was selectively increased in the RelnOrl brain. The relationship between AChE and Reelin and suggested morphogenetic functions are also discussed.     

Trimerization of cell adhesion molecule L1 mimics clustered L1 expression on the cell surface: influence on L1-ligand interactions and on promotion of neurite outgrowth

Several studies indicate that cell adhesion molecules have to be clustered on the cell surface to engage in adhesive functions. We investigated adhesive functions of clustered versus monomeric L1 extracellular parts in vitro to distinguish how clustering affects ligand binding and promotion of neurite outgrowth. Trimeric L1 was recombinantly expressed and covalently assembled by the cartilage matrix protein's coiled-coil domain. Trimeric L1 has an apparent molecular mass of approximately 380 kDa in the nonreduced form and approximately 130 kDa in the reduced form. Rotary shadowing electron micrographs of trimeric L1 revealed a rod-like shape terminating in three globular domains. Monomeric L1 assumes a horseshoe shape of domains Ig I-IV followed by a rod-like structure consisting of Ig V and VI and fibronectin type III 1-5. Circular dichroism measurements showed that the secondary structure consists of beta-sheets. Trimeric L1 binds to itself, to monomeric L1, to laminin-1, and to alpha5beta1 integrin in a concentration-dependent manner. In contrast, binding of monomeric L1 could only be saturated with itself but not with laminin-1 and with alpha5beta1 integrin. Promotion of neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells cultured on adsorbed trimeric L1 was increased by 100%, whereas on monomeric L1 the increase was only 50% over the control value. Promotion of neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells was specifically inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by a polyclonal antibody against L1. These findings show that clustering of only three extracellular domains increases considerably L1's binding affinity to different ligands and enhances neurite outgrowth, suggesting that adhesive functions of L1 on the cell surface depend on cluster formation.     

Ethanol causes the redistribution of L1 cell adhesion molecule in lipid rafts

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is estimated to affect 1% of live births. The similarities between children with fetal alcohol syndrome and those with mutations in the gene encoding L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1) implicates L1 as a target of ethanol developmental neurotoxicity. Ethanol specifically inhibits the neurite outgrowth promoting function of L1 at pharmacologic concentrations. Emerging evidence shows that localized disruption of the lipid rafts reduces L1-mediated neurite outgrowth. We hypothesize that ethanol impairment of the association of L1 with lipid rafts is a mechanism underlying ethanol's inhibition of L1-mediated neurite outgrowth. In this study, we examine the effects of ethanol on the association of L1 and lipid rafts. We show that, in vitro, L1 but not N-cadherin shifts into lipid rafts following treatment with 25 mM ethanol. The ethanol concentrations causing this effect are similar to those inhibiting L1-mediated neurite outgrowth. Increasing chain length of the alcohol demonstrates the same cutoff as that previously shown for inhibition of L1-L1 binding. In addition, in cerebellar granule neurons in which lipid rafts are disrupted with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin, the rate of L1-mediated neurite outgrowth on L1-Fc is reduced to background rate and that this background rate is not ethanol sensitive. These data indicate that ethanol may inhibit L1-mediated neurite outgrowth by retarding L1 trafficking through a lipid raft compartment.     

AlphaII-spectrin participates in the surface expression of cell adhesion molecule L1 and neurite outgrowth

AlphaII-spectrin, a basic component of the spectrin-based scaffold which organizes and stabilizes membrane microdomains in most animal cells, has been recently implicated in cell adherence and actin dynamics. Here we investigated the contribution of αΙΙ-spectrin to neuritogenesis, a highly complex cellular process which requires continuous actin cytoskeleton remodeling and cross-talk between extracellular cues and their cell surface receptors, including cell adhesion molecules. Using RNA interference-mediated gene silencing to down-regulate αΙΙ-spectrin expression in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, we observed major changes in neurite morphology and cell shape: (1) reduced mean length and a higher number of neurites per cell; occasional long neurites were thinner and displayed abnormal adhesiveness during cell migration resulting in frequent breaks; similar persisting adhesiveness and breaks were also observed in trailing edges of cell bodies; (2) irregular polygonal cell shape in parallel with loss of cortical F-actin from neuronal cell bodies; (3) reduction in protein levels of αΙ- and βΙ-spectrins, but not βΙΙ-spectrin (4) decreased global expression of adhesion molecule L1 and spectrin-binding adapter ankyrin-B, which links L1 to the plasma membrane. Remarkably, αΙΙ-spectrin depletion affected L1 – but not NCAM – cell surface expression, and L1 clustering at growth cones. This study demonstrates that αΙΙ-spectrin is implicated in normal morphology and adhesive properties of neuron cell bodies and neurites, and in cell surface expression and organization of adhesion molecule L1.     

Ethanol inhibits L1 cell adhesion molecule activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases

Inhibition of the functions of L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1) by ethanol has been implicated in the pathogenesis of the neurodevelopmental aspects of the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Ethanol at pharmacological concentrations has been shown to inhibit L1-mediated neurite outgrowth of rat post-natal day 6 cerebellar granule cells (CGN). Extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK) 1/2 activation occurs following L1 clustering. Reduction in phosphoERK1/2 by inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) reduces neurite outgrowth of cerebellar neurons. Here, we examine the effects of ethanol on L1 activation of ERK1/2, and whether this activation occurs via activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1). Ethanol at 25 mm markedly inhibited ERK1/2 activation by both clustering L1 with cross-linked monoclonal antibodies, or by L1-Fc chimeric proteins. Clustering L1 with subsequent ERK1/2 activation did not result in tyrosine phosphorylation of the FGFR1. In addition, inhibition of FGFR1 tyrosine kinase blocked basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) activation of ERK1/2, but did not affect activation of ERK1/2 by clustered L1. We conclude that ethanol disrupts the signaling pathway between L1 clustering and ERK1/2 activation, and that this occurs independently of the FGFR1 pathway in cerebellar granule cells.     

Endogenous serotonin release from the dopamine-deficient striatum of the weaver mutant mouse

In addition to an altered dopaminergic input, the striatum of the weaver mutant mouse (wv/wv) has increased serotonin tissue content and uptake compared to the wild-type mouse (+/+). To gain information regarding the functional status of serotonergic inputs to thewv/wv striatum, endogenous serotonin release fromwv/wv and +/+ striatum was measured under basal conditions as well as in the presence of fenfluramine or elevated concentrations of potassium (K⁺). Fractional basal release of serotonin from the +/+ striatum was significantly greater than that from thewv/wv striatum. In the presence of K⁺, evoked release (stimulated release minus basal release) was greater from the +/+ striatum than from thewv/wv striatum. In the presence of fenfluramine, evoked serotonin release was greater from thewv/wv striatum compared to the +/+ striatum. These data are consistent with the involvement of an additional transmitter(s) in modulating serotonin release to a greater extent in thewv/wv than the +/+ striatum. The data on fenfluramine-stimulated serotonin release suggest that the additional serotonin content found in thewv/wv striatum is in a releasable pool but that striatal serotonin release might be attenuated more inwv/wv than in +/+ mice.     

Elevated phenylalanine levels interfere with neurite outgrowth stimulated by the neuronal cell adhesion molecule L1 in vitro

Elevated levels of phenylalanine (Phe) as observed in patients with phenylketonuria interfere with proper neuronal development, leading to severe psychomotor deficits and mental retardation. We have analyzed the effects of Phe on neurite outgrowth in vitro. When expressed in fibroblasts, the neuronal cell adhesion molecules L1 and plexin B3 strongly increase the length of neurites emanating from cerebellar neurons in co-culture experiments. Elevated Phe blocks L1-mediated, but not plexin B3-mediated outgrowth, whereas tyrosine is ineffective. Elevated Phe also interferes with aggregation of fibroblasts overexpressing L1, suggesting that the pathological effect of elevated Phe occurs by interfering with L1-mediated cell adhesion.     

Long-term potentiation in mice lacking the neural cell adhesion molecule L1

Genetic evidence indicates that cell adhesion molecules of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgCAMs) are critical for activity-dependent synapse formation at the neuromuscular junction in Drosophila and have also been implicated in synaptic remodelling during learning in Aplysia (see [1] for review). In mammals, a widely adopted model for the process of learning at the cellular level is long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampal formation. Studies in vitro have shown that antibodies to the IgCAMs L1 and NCAM reduce LTP in CA1 neurons of rat hippocampus, suggesting a role for these molecules in the modulation of synaptic efficacy, perhaps by regulating synaptic remodelling [2]. A role for NCAM in LTP has been confirmed in mice lacking NCAM [3] (but see [4]), but similar studies have not been reported for L1. Here we examine LTP in the hippocampus of mice lacking L1 [5,6], using different experimental protocols in three different laboratories. In tests of LTP in vitro and in vivo we found no significant differences between mutant animals and controls. Thus, contrary to expectation, our data suggest that L1 function is not necessary for the establishment or maintenance of LTP in the hippocampus. Impaired performance in spatial learning exhibited by L1 mutants may therefore not be due to hippocampal dysfunction [6].     

Two alcohol binding residues interact across a domain interface of the L1 neural cell adhesion molecule and regulate cell adhesion

Ethanol may cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) in part by inhibiting cell adhesion mediated by the L1 neural cell adhesion molecule. Azialcohols photolabel Glu-33 and Tyr-418, two residues that are predicted by homology modeling to lie within 2.8 Å of each other at the interface between the Ig1 and Ig4 domains of L1 (Arevalo, E., Shanmugasundararaj, S., Wilkemeyer, M. F., Dou, X., Chen, S., Charness, M. E., and Miller, K. W. (2008) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 371–375). Using transient transfection of NIH/3T3 cells with wild type (WT-L1) and mutated L1, we found that cysteine substitution of both residues (E33C/Y418C-L1) significantly increased L1 adhesion above levels observed for WT-L1 or the single cysteine substitutions E33C-L1 or Y418C-L1. The reducing agent β-mercaptoethanol (βME) reversibly decreased the adhesion of E33C/Y418C-L1, but had no effect on WT-L1, E33C-L1, or Y418C-L1. Thus, disulfide bond formation occurs between Cys-33 and Cys-418, confirming both the close proximity of these residues and the importance of Ig1-Ig4 interactions in L1 adhesion. Maximal ethanol inhibition of cell adhesion was significantly lower in cells expressing E33C/Y418C-L1 than in those expressing WT-L1, E33C-L1, or Y418C-L1. Moreover, the effects of βME and ethanol on E33C/Y418C-L1 adhesion were non-additive. The cutoff for alcohol inhibition of WT-L1 adhesion was between 1-butanol and 1-pentanol. Increasing the size of the alcohol binding pocket by mutating Glu-33 to Ala-33, increased the alcohol cutoff from 1-butanol to 1-decanol. These findings support the hypothesis that alcohol binding within a pocket bordered by Glu-33 and Tyr-418 inhibits L1 adhesion by disrupting the Ig1-Ig4 interaction.     

Ectodomain shedding of L1 adhesion molecule promotes cell migration by autocrine binding to integrins.

The L1 adhesion molecule plays an important role in axon guidance and cell migration in the nervous system. L1 is also expressed by many human carcinomas. In addition to cell surface expression, the L1 ectodomain can be released by a metalloproteinase, but the biological function of this process is unknown. Here we demonstrate that membrane-proximal cleavage of L1 can be detected in tumors and in the developing mouse brain. The shedding of L1 involved a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM)10, as transfection with dominant-negative ADAM10 completely abolishes L1 release. L1-transfected CHO cells (L1-CHO) showed enhanced haptotactic migration on fibronectin and laminin, which was blocked by antibodies to alpha v beta 5 and L1. Migration of L1-CHO cells, but not the basal migration of CHO cells, was blocked by a metalloproteinase inhibitor, indicating a role for L1 shedding in the migration process. CHO and metalloproteinase-inhibited L1-CHO cells were stimulated to migrate by soluble L1-Fc protein. The induction of migration was blocked by alpha v beta 5-specific antibodies and required Arg-Gly-Asp sites in L1. A 150-kD L1 fragment released by plasmin could also stimulate CHO cell migration. We propose that ectodomain-released L1 promotes migration by autocrine/paracrine stimulation via alpha v beta 5. This regulatory loop could be relevant for migratory processes under physiological and pathophysiological conditions.     

Glial cell lineage in vivo in the mouse cerebellum

Glial cells of the cerebellum originate from cells of the ventricular germinative layer, but their lineage has not been fully elucidated. For studying the glial cell lineage in vivo by retrovirus-mediated gene transfer, we introduced a marker retrovirus into the ventricular germinative layer of embryonic day 13 mice. In the resulting adult cerebella, virus-labeled glial cells were grouped in discrete clusters, and statistical analysis showed that these clusters represented clones in high probability. Of 71 of the virus-labeled glial clusters, 33 clusters were composed of astrocytes/Bergmann glia, 10 were composed of only white matter astrocytes, and 24 were composed of only oligodendrocytes. No glial clusters contained virus-labeled neurons. These results suggest that astrocytes/Bergmann glia, white matter astrocytes and oligodendrocytes immediately arise from separate glial precursors: these three glial lineages may diverge in the course of cerebellar development.     

APPswe/PS1dE9转基因小鼠小脑内突触素及BDNF/Trk-B蛋白表达的变化

目的：观察APP/PS1转基因小鼠小脑突触素及BDNF/Trk-B蛋白表达变化。方法：选用9月龄APP/PS1雄鼠（n1）和同窝对照野生型WT雄鼠（n2）。采用Western blot （n1=6;n2=6）、免疫组化（n1=4;n2=4）两种方式定量、定位测定小脑组织功能活性依赖蛋白突触素、脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）和其高亲和力受体（Trk-B）的蛋白表达。用透射电镜观察小脑皮质突触超微结构变化（n1=2;n2=2）。结果：与WT组相比,APP/PS1组小脑皮质内突触素、BDNF/Trk-B表达明显减少;突触间隙增宽,突触后致密区变薄,密度降低。结论：APP/PS1小鼠小脑皮质中突触素、BDNF/Trk-B蛋白含量均明显降低,突触超微结构也发生明显改变,提示AD小脑突触数量及形态变化可能与BDNF合成及释放减少有关。     

Structural mechanism of the antigen recognition by the L1 cell adhesion molecule antibody A10-A3

The L1CAM antibody A10-A3 efficiently reduces tumor growth in a nude mouse model. Here, we describe the crystal structure of the Fab fragment of A10-A3 determined at 2.0 angstrom resolution. The A10-A3 antibody H3 loop reveals a characteristic arrangement of exposed aromatic residues that may play an important role in antigen binding. A structure model of the complex between L1CAM Ig1-4 and A10-A3 Fab indicates that the Fab binds to three small loops outside Ig1 and a residue between Ig1 and Ig2, consistent with an epitope mapping result. The data presented here should contribute to the design of high-affinity antibody for therapeutic purposes as well as to the understanding of neural cell remodeling and cancer progression mechanism mediated by L1CAM.