Interferon-γ down-regulates membrane adenylate cyclase activity of a murine macrophage-like cell line (P388D1)

Effects of recombinant murine interferon-γ (rIFN-γ) on the membrane adenylate cyclase of a murine macrophage cell line (P388D₁) were investigated in order to explore the nature of a signal transmitted by IFN-γ receptor. Following the incubation of P388D₁ cells with 40 U/ml of rIFN-γ, the intracellular level of cAMP gradually increased about twofold over the control level within 60 min, and then began to gradually decline to about half the control level by 24 h incubation. The initial rise in cAMP level appeared to be due to the modest activation of adenylate cyclase and not due to the inhibition of cAMP-phosphodiesterase. Later decrease of intracellular cAMP may be due to quantitative down-regulation of the adenylate cyclase system. The basal enzymatic activity of the membrane prepared from P388D₁ cells exposed to IFN-γ for 24 h was found to be reduced to about 20% of that of the control membrane. However, the quality of the adenylate cyclase system appeared unchanged, because the relative degree of the response of the down-regulated membrane adenylate cyclase to prostaglandin PGE₂, NaF, guanylimidodiphosphate (GppNHp), cholera toxin (CT), or forskolin was found to remain unchanged. This quantitative down-regulation of adenylate cyclase must be due to the action of rIFN-γ, since the prior treatment of rIFN-γ with either acid (pH 2) or monoclonal anti-IFN-γ antibody inhibited the ability of IFN-γ to induce the down-regulation. The rIFN-γ-induced down-regulation is a reversible process, since the adenylate cyclase activity of the membrane was found to be restored when the rIFN-γ-exposed cells were cultured for 72 h in the absence of rIFN-γ. In addition, the 48 h-incubation of P388D₁ cells with rIFN-β or IFN-α was found not to significantly affect the membrane adenylate cyclase system.     

Biological activity of hamster interferon-gamma is modulated by the carboxyl-terminal tail

The Syrian golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) is highly susceptible to a number of intracellular pathogens. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), the primary macrophage-activating cytokine, plays a key role in the host defense against intracellular pathogens. The hamster IFN-γ cDNA encodes a 174 amino acid protein that has an additional 17 amino acids at the carboxyl-terminus compared to IFN-γ of mice and rats. A homologous C-terminal tail is also found in other non-murine rodents. The biological activity of hamster IFN-γ had not been investigated previously so we first demonstrated the activity of native IFN-γ in assays of IFN-γ-induced receptor signaling and antiviral activity against vesicular stomatitis virus. We then tested the hypothesis that the C-terminal tail of hamster IFN-γ could influence its biological activity. A truncated hamster IFN-γ, in which the C-terminal 17 aa were removed by insertion of a stop codon at the position corresponding to the stop codon in the mouse sequence, had approximately 10-fold greater activity than the full length protein when measured in the two bioassays. Polyclonal and monoclonal anti-hamster IFN-γ antibodies specifically inhibited this biological activity. Collectively, these data indicate that this unique structural feature influences the biological activity of hamster IFN-γ.     

Intrinsic ligand binding properties of the human and bovine α,-interferon receptors

The Type I interferon receptor (IFN-αR) interacts with all IFN-αs, IFN-β and IFN-ω, and seems to be a multisubunit receptor. To investigate the role of a cloned receptor subunit (IFN-αR1), we have examined the intrinsic ligand binding properties of the bovine and human IFN-αR1 polypeptides expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Albeit with different efficiencies, Xenopus oocytes expressing either the human or bovine IFN-αR1 polypeptide exhibit significant binding and formation of crosslinked complexes with human IFN-αA and IFN-αB. Thus, the IFN-αR1 polypeptide most likely plays a direct role in ligand binding.     

Secretory expression of interferon-alpha 2b in recombinant Pichia pastoris using three different secretion signals

Human interferon-alpha 2b (IFN-α2b) was cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris under the control of alcohol oxidase promoter (AOX1) using three different secretion signals. Native secretion signal of IFN-α2b, Saccharomyces cerevisiae MF-α factor prepro sequence and a mutated α prepro sequence without the Glu-Ala (EAEA) repeats were used separately for directing the secretion of IFN-α2b into the culture medium of P. pastoris. The native secretion signal of IFN-α2b did not secrete protein into the culture medium of P. pastoris. The α prepro sequence without the EAEA repeats directed the secretion of maximum amount of IFN-α2b (200 mg/l) into the culture medium, with the same amino acid sequence as that of the native IFN-α2b secreted by human lymphocytes. The full α prepro sequence, having both the protease cleavage sites for KEX2 and STE13 gene products, also secreted an equivalent amount of IFN-α2b into the culture medium. However, two interferon bands with similar molecular masses were observed, when full α prepro sequence was used for the secretion of IFN-α2b. The difference in the molecular masses of the two bands was found to arise due to the difference in the molecular masses of the N-terminal fragment, and the inefficient processing of secretion signal.     

Differential modulation of two interferon-α binding proteins on a human lymphoblastoid cell line

The interaction between human interferon (IFN)-α or IFN-β with its receptor was originally described as the binding to a single class of high-affinity receptors. However, more recently, biphasic Scatchard plots as well as multiple IFN-α receptor cross-linked complexes have been reported. In this study using the Daudi B lymphoblastoid cell line, two primary IFN-α receptor cross-linked complexes with apparent M_r of 115 and 135 kilodaltons (kDa) were obtained. Both complexes were observed under a variety of cross-linking conditions, including the addition of a mixture of protease inhibitors throughout the binding reaction and solubilization of the cells. These two complexes appear to be caused by the binding and cross-linking of ¹²⁵I-rIFN-αA to two separate proteins because we also observed two IFN-α binding proteins using a ligand-blotting technique. At low concentrations of ¹²⁵I-rIFN-αA, it was found that the intensity of the signal in the 135-kDa cross-linked complex was greater than that of the 115-kDa complex. Addition of increasing concentrations of unlabeled rIFN-αA to a 4°C binding reaction reversed the ratio in intensities of the two complexes. Moreover, after pretreatment of the cells at 37°C with low concentrations of unlabeled rIFN-αA, there was preferential down-regulation of both the 135-kDa complex and the higher affinity binding component of the biphasic Scatchard plot. These results suggest that the 135-kDa complex represents the binding of ¹²⁵I-rIFN-αA to a protein having higher affinity for IFN than the protein that gives rise to the 115-kDa complex. These two proteins also appear to have different half lives in the plasma membrane in the absence of IFN because treatment with cycloheximide also caused a preferential decrease in the subsequent formation of the 135-kDa complex.     

The differential effect of Eriobotrya japonica hydrophilic leaf extract on cytokines production and modulation

Stimulating or modulating the release of cytokines by immunomodulators or immunostimulating agents is an attractive mode for treating several diseases such as viral infections. For instance, patients with viral infections may be in need of increasing or inducing T helper 1 (Th1) or proinflammatory cytokines, which ultimately activate T cytotoxic and Natural killer lymphocytes to kill virally infected cells. Of these agents, we found that Eriobotrya japonica hydrophilic leaf extract (EJHE) can induce and modulate cytokines in dose-dependent manner. Twenty-four hour exposure of increasing concentrations of EJHE increased significantly (p < 0.001) the production of IFN-γ and TNF-α, from PHA+LPS-stimulated whole blood. However, the production of IFN-γ and TNF-α plateaued at high EJHE concentrations (10–100 μg/ml). No significant changes in the production of IL-10 were seen. In addition, EJHE at 1 and 10 μg/ml reversed significantly (p < 0.01) the inhibitory effect of hydrocortisone on the IL-12 p70, IFN-γ and TNF-α production from PHAS+LPS stimulated whole blood. Without PHA and LPS, EJHE was found to induce significantly (p < 0.001) IFN-γ, IL-12 p70, TNF-α, and IL-10 from whole blood culture in concentration dependent manner. The maximum induction of IFN-γ, IL-12 p70, and TNF-α by EJHE was at 1 and 10 μg/ml. On the other hand, IL-10 induction kept increasing even at the highest concentration used (100 μg/ml) of EJHE. Furthermore, intra-peritoneal injection of EJHE into mice increased significantly serum cytokines level mainly at 10 and 100 μg/ml. Two-hour post i.p. injection, EJHE increased serum IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-10 to 750, 1000, and 250 pg/ml, respectively. However, 24 h post i.p. injection, the levels of TNF-α, and IL-10 were similar to basal levels but IFN-γ levels were 200 pg/ml. These results indicate that EJHE induces proinflammatory and Th1 cytokines in concentration dependent manner and the effect of this induction should be studied further in viral models to check the efficacy of such cytokine induction.     

Fungal hydroxylation of (−)-santonin and its analogues

Santonin (1) was incubated with separate growing cultures of Aspergillus niger ATCC 9142, Mucor plumbeus ATCC 4740, Whetzelinia sclerotiorum ATCC 18687, Cunninghamella echinulata var. elegans ATCC 8688a and Phanerochaete chrysosporium ATCC 24725. Three novel metabolites were isolated: 11β,13-dihydroxysantonin (3), 6,7-dehydosantonin (5) and 3,6-dihydroxy-9-keto-9,10-seco-selina-1,3,5(10)-trien-12-oic acid-12,6-lactone (7). 11β-Hydroxysantonin (2), 14-hydroxysantonin (4) and 3,6,9-trihydroxy-9,10-seco-selina-1,3,5(10)-trien-12-oic acid-12,6-lactone (6) were also isolated. Hydroxylation at C-9 followed by a retro-aldol reaction was postulated to have produced 6 and 7. Through the synthesis and fermentation of the santonin analogues: tetrahydrosantonin (8) and α-desmotroposantonin (12), several new compounds were obtained; the most significant being 9-keto-desmotroposantonin (14), which was indicative of C-9 monohydroxylation.     

Guanylate-binding Protein 1 (Gbp1) Contributes to Cell-autonomous Immunity against Toxoplasma gondii

IFN-γ activates cells to restrict intracellular pathogens by upregulating cellular effectors including the p65 family of guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs). Here we test the role of Gbp1 in the IFN-γ-dependent control of T. gondii in the mouse model. Virulent strains of T. gondii avoided recruitment of Gbp1 to the parasitophorous vacuole in a strain-dependent manner that was mediated by the parasite virulence factors ROP18, an active serine/threonine kinase, and the pseudokinase ROP5. Increased recruitment of Gbp1 to Δrop18 or Δrop5 parasites was associated with clearance in IFN-γ-activated macrophages in vitro, a process dependent on the autophagy protein Atg5. The increased susceptibility of Δrop18 mutants in IFN-γ-activated macrophages was reverted in Gbp1^−/− cells, and decreased virulence of this mutant was compensated in Gbp1^−/− mice, which were also more susceptible to challenge with type II strain parasites of intermediate virulence. These findings demonstrate that Gbp1 plays an important role in the IFN-γ-dependent, cell-autonomous control of toxoplasmosis and predict a broader role for this protein in host defense.     

PAS-1, a protein from Ascaris suum, modulates allergic inflammation via IL-10 and IFN-γ, but not IL-12

Helminths and their products have a profound immunomodulatory effect upon the inductive and effector phases of inflammatory responses, including allergy. We have demonstrated that PAS-1, a protein isolated from Ascaris suum worms, has an inhibitory effect on lung allergic inflammation due to its ability to down-regulate eosinophilic inflammation, Th2 cytokine release and IgE antibody production. Here, we investigated the role of IL-12, IFN-γ and IL-10 in the PAS-1-induced inhibitory mechanism using a murine model of asthma. Wild type C57BL/6, IL-12^−/−, IFN-γ^−/− and IL-10^−/− mice were immunized with PAS-1 and/or OVA and challenged with the same antigens intranasally. The suppressive effect of PAS-1 was demonstrated on the cellular influx into airways, with reduction of eosinophil number and eosinophil peroxidase activity in OVA + PAS-1-immunized wild type mice. This effect well correlated with a significant reduction in the levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and eotaxin in BAL fluid. Levels of IgE and IgG1 antibodies were also impaired in serum from these mice. The inhibitory activity of PAS-1 was also observed in IL-12^−/− mice, but not in IFN-γ^−/− and IL-10^−/− animals. These data show that IFN-γ and IL-10, but not IL-12, play an important role in the PAS-1 modulatory effect.     

Use of long synthetic peptides to study the antigenicity and immunogenicity of the Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite protein

Three long synthetic peptides corresponding to amino (N), repeat (R) and carboxyl (C) regions of the Plasmodium vivax circumsporozoite (CS) protein were synthesised and used to assess their potential as vaccine candidates. Antigenicity studies were carried out using human blood samples from residents of a malaria-endemic area of Colombia, and immunogenicity was tested in Aotus monkeys. The N and C peptides spanned the total native amino and carboxyl flanking regions, whereas the R peptide corresponded to a construct based on the first central nona-peptide repeated in tandem three times and colinearly linked to a universal T-cell epitope (ptt-30) derived from tetanus toxin. All three peptides had been shown previously to contain several B-, T-helper (Th) and Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) epitopes. Sixty-one percent of the human sera reacted with the R region, whereas 35 and 39% of the samples had antibodies against the N and C peptides, respectively. Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC) showed higher levels of IFN-γ than IL-4 when stimulated with peptides containing Th epitopes. Aotus monkeys immunised with the peptides formulated in either Montanide ISA720 or Freund's adjuvants produced strong antibody responses that recognised the peptide immunogens and the native circumsporozoite protein on sporozoites. Additionally, high IFN-γ production was induced when Aotus lymphocytes were stimulated in vitro with each of the three peptides. We observed boosting of antibody responses and IFN-γ production by exposure to live sporozoites. These results confirm the high antigenicity and immunogenicity of such synthetic polypeptides and underline their vaccine potential.     

The sequence and phylogenesis of the α-globin genes of Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), goat (Capra hircus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and Cyprus mouflon (Ovis aries ophion)

In order to investigate the polymorphism of α-globin chain of hemoglobin amongst caprines, the linked ^Iα and ^IIα globin genes of Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), goat (Capra hircus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), and Cyprus mouflon (Ovis aries ophion) were completely sequenced, including the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. European and Cyprus mouflons, which do not show polymorphic α globin chains, had almost identical α globin genes, whereas Barbary sheep exhibit two different chains encoded by two nonallelic genes. Four different α genes were observed and sequenced in goat, validating previous observations of the existence of allelic and nonallelic polymorphism. As in other vertebrates, interchromosomal gene conversion appears to be responsible for such polymorphism. Evaluation of nucleotide sequences at the level of molecular evolution of the ^Iα-globin gene family in the caprine taxa suggests a closer relationship between the genus Ammotragus and Capra. Molecular clock estimates suggest sheep-mouflon, goat-aoudad, and ancestor-caprine divergences of 2.8, 5.7, and 7.1 MYBP, respectively.     

Interferon-gamma and interleukin-4 single nucleotide gene polymorphisms in Paracoccidioidomycosis

The gene polymorphisms interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) +874 T/A and interleukin (IL)-4 −590 C/T have been associated with the altered production of cytokines. Therefore, they might be indicative of the occurrence of Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. The analysis of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at position +874 IFN-γ showed an increase occurrence of A/T genotype in both PCM patients and healthy individuals as control (HIC) (56% and 45%, respectively), while the allelic distribution showed 82% of A allele in the patients and 80% in the controls. The SNP of −590 IL-4 showed that C/T genotype was significantly (p < 0.05) more prevalent (39%) in PCM group compared to the HIC group (19%), while IL-4 C/C genotype was significantly less frequent (59%) in the patient group compared to the control group (81%). Otherwise, 41% of PCM patients and 19% of HIC individuals carried the IL-4 T allele. Stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from PCM patients with cell extract antigenic preparations (PbAg) as well as secreted and surface antigens (MEXO) of P. brasiliensis evidenced that there is no difference in the IFN-γ production related to A and T alleles between PCM and HIC individuals. However, with IL-4 production, PCM patients classified as C phenotype showed two times more IL-4 production than PCM patients classified as T phenotype and HIC controls. In conclusion, our results suggest that functional genetic variants in the IL-4 promoter could influence the production of IL-4 in PCM.     

Comparison of DIMBOA concentrations among wheat isolines and corresponding plant introduction lines

The concentration of a hydroxamic acid, also known as DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1, 4-benzoxazin-3-one), in 6-d old wheat seedlings was examined using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Wheat plant introduction (PI) lines PI 137739 (Dn1 gene), PI 262660 (Dn2 gene), and PI 294994 (Dn5 gene), the corresponding near-isogenic lines`Betta'-Dn1, Betta-Dn2 and Betta-Dn5, and susceptible Betta wheat were used in the study. The Dn2 gene conferring Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), tolerance was not related to DIMBOA concentration in wheat. Of the lines with Dn1 and Dn5 genes that confer antibiosis to D. noxia, only lines with the Dn5 gene showed increased DIMBOA accumulation. However, the Dn5 and the DIMBOA biosynthesis genes are not located in the same chromosome group. Possible relationship between the Dn5 gene and DIMBOA accumulation was discussed. This study indicates that DIMBOA concentration does not completely explain D. noxia resistance in the wheat lines examined and a comprehensive examination of other allelochemicals (e.g., phenolics) is necessary.     

The roles of IL-10 and TGF-beta in controlling IL-4 and IFN-gamma production during experimental Fasciola hepatica infection

Hosts infected with Fasciola hepatica experience immunosuppression during the acute and chronic phases of the disease. This immunosuppression may allow parasite survival in the face of an ongoing immune response. In bovine hosts early IL-4 and continued IgG1 production is one of the few remaining features of the characteristic type 0/2 helper (Th0/2) response present in the chronic stage of disease. Here we demonstrate elevated levels of parasite-specific, in vitro peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC)-derived transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 from the early phases of infection and increasing levels of IL-10 as the infection becomes chronic. In vitro neutralisation of these cytokines during culture of PBMCs from experimentally-infected cattle increased IL-4 and IFN-γ production in response to parasite-specific and non-specific stimulation. At 4 weeks p.i. neutralisation of TGF-β results in an increase in parasite driven IL-4, while also having a greater role, compared with IL-10, in influencing specific and non-specific IFN-γ. At 12 weeks p.i. ex vivo parasite driven IL-4 was not restored by inhibiting either IL-10 or TGF-β. However IL-10 influenced both parasite-specific and non-specific IFN-γ production at this time. This highlights the roles of IL-10 and TGF-β in fasciolosis, however the cellular sources of these have yet to be defined. This suggests that suppression of IFN-γ production by parasite molecules occurs during infection and it is possible that the suppression of IFN-γ production may mediate parasite survival in this disease.     

Transforming growth factor-β and Th17 responses in resistance to primary murine schistosomiasis mansoni

Discovery of the T-helper (Th) 17 cell lineage and functions in immune responses of mouse and man prompted us to investigate the role of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and interleukin (IL)-17 in innate resistance to murine schistosomiasis mansoni. Schistosoma mansoni-infected BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were administered with recombinant TGF-β or mouse monoclonal antibody to TGF-β to evaluate the impact of this cytokine on host immune responses against lung-stage schistosomula, and subsequent effects on adult worm parameters. Developing schistosomula elicited increase in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) mRNA expression and/or plasma levels of IL-4, IL-17, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), cytokines known to antagonize each other, resulting in impaired Th1/Th2, and Th17 immune responses and parasite evasion. Mice treated with TGF-β showed elevated PBMC mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-17, TGF-β, and TNF-α mRNA and increased IL-23 and IL-17 or TGF-β plasma levels, associated with significantly (P < 0.02–<0.0001) lower S. mansoni adult worm burden compared to controls in both mouse strains, thus suggesting that TGF-β led to heightened Th17 responses that mediated resistance to the infection. Mice treated with antibody to TGF-β showed increase in PBMC mRNA expression and plasma levels of IL-4, IL-12p70, and IFN-γ, and significantly (P < 0.02 and <0.0001) reduced worm burden and liver worm egg counts than untreated mice, indicating that Th1/Th2 immune responses were potentiated, resulting in significant innate resistance to schistosomiasis. The implications of these observations for schistosome immune evasion and vaccination were discussed.     

Armadillo meat intake was not associated with leprosy in a case control study, Curitiba (Brazil)

Leprosy's progression and its maintained endemic status, despite the availability of effective treatments, are not fully understood and recent studies have highlighted the possibility of involved Mycobacterium leprae ambient reservoirs. Wild armadillos can carry leprosy and, because their meat is eaten by humans, development of the disease among armadillo meat consumers has been investigated. This study evaluated the frequency of armadillo meat intake among leprosy patients as well as age and gender matched controls with other skin diseases from a dermatological unit. Armadillo meat consumption among both groups was adjusted by demographic and socioeconomic covariates based on a conditional multiple logistic regression model. One hundred twenty-one cases and 242 controls were evaluated; they differed in socioeconomic variables such as family income, hometown population and access to treated water. The multivariate analysis did not show an association between the intake of armadillo meat and leprosy (odds ratio = 1.07; CI 95% 0.56-2.04), even when only cases with no known contacts were analyzed. We conclude that leprosy is not associated with the intake of armadillo meat in these patients.     

Suitability of Aphis fabae, Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Aleyrodes proletella (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) as prey for Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

The suitability of Aphis fabae Scopoli, Myzus persicae Sulzer and Aleyrodes proletella L. as food sources for Coccinella undecimpunctata L. was evaluated by studying the impact of prey consumption on the predator’s population growth parameters and feeding parameters. Unlike A. proletella, A. fabae and M. persicae supported the development and reproduction of C. undecimpunctata. A. fabae and M. persicae were considered to be essential prey, whereas A. proletella was considered to be an alternative prey. Aphid species showed different degrees of suitability: M. persicae significantly decreased the pre-oviposition period and increased adult longevity, fecundity and fertility compared with A. fabae. Moreover, A. fabae represents a suitable diet for larval development, but is not a suitable food source for adult reproduction. The predator’s population growth parameters, R₀, r_m and λ were increased with M. persicae, whereas T decreased. We found that the 4th instar larvae were the most voracious, particularly when fed on M. persicae; nevertheless, with this prey daily weight gain and feeding efficiency of 4th instar larvae were similar to that of individuals fed with A. fabae.     

Successful oviposition and reproductive biology of Aprostocetus vaquitarum (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae): A predator of Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Aprostocetus vaquitarum (Wolcott) causes 78–91 percent mortality to eggs of Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.), under field conditions in southern Florida. In the laboratory, A. vaquitarum was reared on D. abbreviatus eggs at 25 °C, a photoperiod of 12:12 (L:D) and with abundant hosts, A. vaquitarum adult females lived around 15 days. Oviposition was significantly affected by the age of the host egg mass. Egg masses aged 0- to 3-day-old were accepted significantly better than those aged 4–6 days. The mean number of eggs deposited per female was around 53, with extreme values of 124 and 19 eggs per female. Using these data in combination with the sex ratio observed in the field (0.16) and the duration of the preimaginal stages, r_m (0.168–0142 day⁻¹), T (22.39–22.89 days), and R₀ (43.03–25.81 females per female) were calculated.