‘Electronic subsampling’ of macrobenthic samples: how many individuals are needed for a valid assessment result?

We developed and tested an `electronic subsampling technique' with benthic invertebrate samples taken in three German stream types to investigate, how strongly the number of individuals analysed influences the results. For each of 152 samples (`reference samples') 100 subsamples of the sizes 100, 200, 300, 500 and 700 individuals were generated randomly. To evaluate subsample deviation from the reference sample 45 metrics were calculated. In general, the variability of metric results increases with decreasing subsample size. Individual metrics show different sensitivity to decreasing subsample size. Three of the metrics tested (German Saprobic Index, German Fauna Index and Ecological Quality Index using Macroinvertebrates) are part of the German AQEM assessment system, for which they are transferred into quality classes. More than 40% of the 100-individuals subsamples are classified into a different quality class compared to the reference samples, but less than 20% for 700-individual subsamples. A certainty >20% is obtained with a subsample size of 300 individuals in lowland streams, whereas 700 individuals are needed to achieve the same level of confidence in mountain streams. Metrics, which rely on absolute abundances or abundance classes (e.g. BMWP, number of taxa) show higher sensitivity to a changing number of individuals than metrics, which depend on relative abundances (e.g. [%] Lithal preferences, [%] of Gatherers/collectors). Thus, the reliability of the metrics is related to subsample size, stream type and metric type.     

The AQEM multimetric system for the southern Italian Apennines: assessing the impact of water quality and habitat degradation on pool macroinvertebrates in Mediterranean rivers

In accordance with the aims of the E.U. funded AQEM Project, an assessment system module based on aquatic macroinvertebrates was developed for small sized rivers in the southern Apennines (south Italy). Eleven stream sites, impacted to a greater or a lesser extent by organic pollution and/or habitat impairment and chosen to cover the whole degradation gradient present in the geographical area were sampled in three seasons. The samples were collected following a proportional, multihabitat procedure, afterwards considering separately the replicates collected in the depositional (pool) and transport (riffle) areas for the analysis. A PCA multivariate analysis was performed to extract the main axes of variation of the biological community, which resulted in the first axis being strongly correlated to ecological quality. The final assessment module is based on a multimetric system, structured by selecting the best metrics in simulating the first axis gradient. The system considers a total of 15 different metrics, mainly providing information concerning tolerance to pollution, taxa richness, habitat features and trophic structure of the community. In accordance with the WFD requirements, some of these metrics are based on abundance classes of taxa. Depositional and transport units, due to the observed dissimilarity in the structure of their benthic communities, were kept separate during the development of the assessment system to retain this potentially useful information and to clear interpretation of the results. Both `riffle' and `pool' invertebrate data showed clear differences in ecological quality between sites. Nevertheless, the final assessment module is based on the macroinvertebrates inhabiting depositional areas of rivers only, because the metrics for these river units showed a better performance than those examined for the transport river units. The application of the assessment module requires 10 replicates to be quantitatively collected, for a total area of 0.5 m². In terms of sampling and identification effort, the assessment module shows a good comparability with the standard Italian method presently in use and might thus be easily applied for river sites classification according to the Water Framework Directive in southern Italy. The site classification obtained with the proposed multimetric index shows a very good correspondence with the post-classification based on multivariate analysis.     

Effects of invasive benthic macroinvertebrates on assessment methods of the EU Water Frame Work Directive

The assessment of the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems for the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive is based on different methods, many of which include the study of macroinvertebrate organisms. We examined whether and how invasive species affect the calculation of metrics used for fresh water assessment utilizing data from different substrate types in the streams of Central Germany. In these streams, the proportion of macroinvertebrate invasives increased from a very low fraction of the community up to 75% of species, or 96% of individuals, within 15 years. The values of the German Saprobic Index (GSI, reflecting the degree of organic load) did not differ significantly between different substrate types or within the examined stream reaches. However, saprobic valences of the species recorded did differ between substrates and between localities. This obvious contradiction is caused by an abundance of exotic species all having a medium GSI index between 2.2 and 2.3. Moreover, the minimum total number of organisms required for this method cannot be reached for a large majority of the sites dominated by invasives making it impossible to use the GSI. Regarding distribution of zonation types, the proportion of metarhithral species is low, and it is even lower on hard substrates than it is on soft substrates. This contradicts the general assumption that dwellers preferring metarhithral reaches (=lower-trout region) will show an affinity for habitats with higher oxygen concentrations and stronger flow velocities, both appearing more on hard than on soft substrates. This latter contradiction results from the classification of the most abundant invasive species Potamopyrgus antipodarum, Dikerogammarus villosus, and Chelicorophium curvispinum in the AQEM taxa reference list. The metrics ‘locomotion type’ and ‘feeding type’ were also affected by the presence of invasive species. Possible options for overcoming these assessment problems are discussed.     

Towards a multimetric index for the assessment of Dutch streams using benthic macroinvertebrates

This study describes the development of a macroinvertebrate based multimetric index for two stream types, fast and slow running streams, in the Netherlands within the AQEM project. Existing macroinvertebrate data (949 samples) were collected from these stream types from all over the Netherlands. All sites received a ecological quality (post-)classification ranging from 1 (bad status) to 4 (good status) based on biotic and abiotic variables, using a combination of multivariate analysis and expert-judgement. A number of bioassessment metrics was tested for both stream types (fast and slow running streams) to examine their power to discriminate between streams of different ecological quality within each stream type. A metric was selected for inclusion in the final multimetric index when there was no overlap of the 25th and 75th percentile between one (or more) ecological quality class(es). Out of all metrics tested, none could distinguish between all four ecological quality classes without overlap of the 25th and 75th percentile between one or more of the classes. Instead, metrics were selected that could distinguish between one (or more) ecological quality class(es) and all others. Finally, 10 metrics were selected for the assessment of slow running streams and 11 metrics for the assessment of fast running streams. Class boundaries were established, to make the assignment of scores to the individual metrics possible. The class boundaries were set at the 25th and/or 75th percentile of the individual metric values. The individual metrics were combined into a multimetric index. Calibration showed that 67% of the samples from slow running streams and 65% of the samples from fast running streams were classified in accordance to their post-classification. In total, only 8% of the samples differed more than one quality class from the post-classification. The multimetric index was validated with data collected in the Netherlands from 82 sites for the purpose of the AQEM project. Validation showed that 54% of the streams were classified correctly.     

The effect of excluding taxa with low abundances or taxa with small distribution ranges on ecological assessment

The present study aims to investigate whether taxa with a small distribution range or taxa with low abundances indicate specific habitats or a high ecological quality and what the effect is if these taxa are excluded from ecological assessment. We compared autecological features between stream dwelling taxa with a mean abundance >5 individuals per sample and a mean abundance ≤5 individuals per sample as well as between taxa with a small distribution range and taxa with a large distribution range. The number of rare taxa (either with a small distribution range or with low abundances) in a sample was related to the ecological quality classes. To test the effect of exclusion of rare taxa we constructed 8 data sets all including 142 samples of Dutch lowland streams. From each data set we stepwise excluded taxa that had low abundances or taxa that were known to be restricted in their distribution range. With help of the AQEM assessment software we calculated the final ecological quality classes and the metrics that were included in the multimetric for the original data and the 8 selected data sets. Autecological features of the taxa within the different selections showed that taxa with small distribution ranges were often running water taxa, living on stones and gravel and indicating oligosaprobic water conditions in contrast to taxa that had a large distribution range. There were only small differences between taxa with low and high abundances. However, current velocity preference was lower for taxa with abundance ≤5 individuals per sample, saprobic values were higher and scores for typical stream habitats, such as lithal, psammal and akal were lower compared to high abundant taxa. If taxa with low abundances were excluded a higher ecological quality class was achieved in most cases, while excluding taxa with a small distribution range resulted in lower ecological quality classes. In conclusion, excluding taxa with a small distribution range led to worse ecological quality classes because these taxa have special autecological features that often indicate natural streams. On the other hand, excluding taxa with low abundances resulted in higher ecological quality classes because these taxa indicate more disturbed situations and because the number of taxa per sample was strongly reduced. Although the documentation of rare taxa (either with low abundances or with small distribution ranges) is often time and cost-intensive regarding field work, laboratory work, data processing, and analyses, the indicative power of these taxa for natural circumstances is essential and therefore rare taxa should be included in ecological assessment studies.     

Effects of stream size on taxa richness and other commonly used benthic bioassessment metrics

Benthic macroinvertebrate samples were collected from natural substrates in disturbed and undisturbed South Carolina upper coastal plain streams to determine if taxa richness and other bioassessment metrics were significantly related to stream size as predicted by the River Continuum Concept (RCC). Linear, quadratic, and lognormal regression models indicated that stream width was positively related to total number of taxa; number of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) taxa; and total number of organisms. Linear regression showed that the expected number of taxa at undisturbed sites ranged from 35 in 2.0 m wide streams to 64 in 16.0 m streams. Comparable values were 8–20 for EPT and 109–261 for number of organisms. Stream width was inversely related to biotic index values indicating a decrease in average organism tolerance with increasing stream size. ANCOVA showed that the effects of stream size were similar for disturbed and undisturbed sites. Rank correlations and multidimensional scaling (MDS) showed that Lepidoptera and Trichoptera were more abundant in larger streams and Annelida in smaller streams. Stream size related changes in benthic macroinvertebrate community composition are often ignored in bioassessment protocols; however, failure to adjust metrics for stream size can lead to erroneous conclusions. Adjustments are possible by analyzing regression residuals stripped of stream size related variance, dividing the area beneath the maximum taxa richness line into equal size units for metric scoring, or scaling metrics based on predicted reference values. Electronic supplementary material Electronic supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users.     

Assessment of organic pollution effect considering differences between lotic and lentic stream habitats

Based on the requirements of the Water Framework Directive, a macroinvertebrate-based assessment system to evaluate the ecological quality of streams has been developed by AQEM project consortium. In the Czech Republic the impact of organic pollution was principal pressure studied, but some morphological degradation of some sampling sites could not be avoided. A multimetric assessment system for three stream types was developed. Detrended Correspondence Analysis was used for the detection of the response of macroinvertebrate communities to the gradient of organic degradation. Significant relationships between abiotic (BOD, TOC, nutrients) and biotic (saprobic index, ASPT) indicators of organic enrichment/eutrophication were identified. Separate storage of the riffle and pool components of each multi-habitat sample allowed differences between these habitats to be compared in context of the metrics applied in the assessment system. Lotic and lentic habitats differed in taxonomic composition, ecological traits and biotic indices. The separate assessment of the riffle and pool parts of samples provides additional useful information when combined effects of organic pollution and morphological degradation are to be considered.     

Assessment methodology for southern siliceous basins in Portugal

A sampling programme was developed in three stream types, of siliceous geology, from the south of Portugal (small and mid-sized lowland streams and small-sized median altitude streams). The samples were taken according to the AQEM site protocol procedure, keeping transport and depositional habitats samples separated. In each stream type, at least 13 sites were studied over a gradient of organic pollution (pre-classification). The benthic macroinvertebrates were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. A Detrended Correspondence Analysis of macroinvertebrate communities identified a gradient of organic pollution strongly related to the first axis. This ordination allowed the establishment of classes of organic pollution using the Kmeans software (post-classification). Metrics based on the macroinvertebrate communities (tolerance, richness, composition and trophic structure) were computed and tested for correlation with the gradient of organic pollution (first axis of DCA). Most of the selected metrics were able to discriminate the four quality classes (high, good, moderate and poor) of ecological status. A multimetric index, integrating ASPT′ index, Trichoptera families and percentage of Gasteropoda, Oligochaeta and Diptera, is proposed to assess the ecological status of Portuguese southern siliceous basins.     

Habitat characteristics of crayfish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Paranephrops planifrons</Emphasis>) in New Zealand streams using generalised additive models (GAMs)

Quantitative data on the habitat characteristics of stream crayfish have been generally lacking and competing demands on water resources has created a need to address this knowledge gap. We investigated day-time habitat relationships of stream crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons White) from 793 quadrats at 30 rivers and streams in the North Island, New Zealand to develop models of koura presence–absence and abundance. The model (stepwise GAM) included width, cover, median substrate size, edge location, velocity and depth, and correctly predicted presence–absence of crayfish (8–39 mm OCL) at 73.4% of quadrats and of young-of-the-year (YOY) ≤8 mm OCL at 83.4% of quadrats. Streams ranged from 1.6 to 11.5 m in width and the probability of finding both crayfish size classes reduced sharply as streams became wider than 6 m and as the substrate became large (i.e., boulder > 256 mm). Crayfish, particularly YOY, were most likely to be found in association with cover and at the stream edge. YOY were associated with shallow depths and fine substrates, whereas larger crayfish showed a preference for cobble substrate. Undercut banks, leaf litter, tree roots, and woody debris were strongly related to the presence–absence of crayfish. The model for crayfish abundance (log-linear Poisson GAM) explained 50% of the variation between quadrats with cover, velocity, edge location, depth, and the overall crayfish abundance at each particular stream being significant variables. Highest crayfish numbers were recorded in still or slow flowing water, with the majority occurring where velocities were below 0.4 m/s. Water depths up to 0.7 m were sampled, but highest numbers were found in depths of 0.2–0.3 m. Our presence–absence model determined variables that were significant over all streams, whereas our abundance model determined variables that were significant within streams. Use of the GAMs models enabled us to untangle the multiple factors contributing to habitat selection. Cover, velocity, and locations at the stream edge were important determinants of both presence–absence and abundance. Generally, substrate was important when comparing between streams, but not within streams, whereas depth was a significant determinant of abundance within streams, but not presence–absence between streams. Handling editor: K. Martens     

Assessment of running waters (Slovakia) using benthic macroinvertebrates — derivation of ecological quality classes with respect to altitudinal gradients

A method is presented for defining the five classes of ecological quality based on a multimetric index (MMI) of macroinvertebrates, as required for implementation of the Water Framework Directive for small (catchment area 10–100 km²), medium (101–1000 km²) and large (> 1000 km²) streams. Our method (expert judgment) allows us to overcome an absence of reference sites for some stream types. The key was selection of suitable metrics for all stream types. The whole procedure was divided into two parts. 1. Small streams with reference sites: suitable metrics were selected according to their ability to distinguish reference and monitoring sites — SI, Oligo [%], BMWP, RhiTI, Rheoindex, IBCR, % Aka+Lit+Psa [%] and EPT. Here the high-good boundary value was set as the 25^th (for metrics decreasing with increasing pollution) or 75^th percentile (for metrics increasing with increasing pollution). 2. Medium and large streams which lack reference sites: here the idea was applied that some metrics, the values of which change along an altitudinal gradient, also react to anthropogenic stress — SI, Oligo [%], BMWP, [%] metarhithral, RhiTI, Aka+Lit+Psa [%] and EPT for both medium and large streams with, in addition, IBCR and NFam for medium streams. This assumption was supported by regression analysis of altitude and metrics from small streams. Not all the metrics were related to altitude but metrics with a good ability to separate reference and monitoring sites did show a significant relationship to altitude. The boundary between high and good class for medium and large streams was set as the 95^th or 5^th percentiles.     

Critical influence of seasonal sampling on the ecological quality assessment of small headwater streams

Variability in the ecological quality assessment of reference sites was tested on small headwater streams in Ireland. Although headwater streams constitute a large portion of the river channel network, they are not routinely monitored for water quality. Various metrics were used including the Irish Q-value and the newly developed Small Streams Risk Score (SSRS), and metrics applied elsewhere in the Atlantic biogeographic region in Europe, including the Biological Monitoring Working Party score (BMWP), the Average Score per Taxon (ASPT), the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera taxa (EPT), the Belgium Biotic Index (BBI) and the Danish Stream Fauna Index (DSFI). The AQEM (version 2.5a) assessment software was used to apply some of these metrics. The spring and summer datasets are used to test the performance of biotic metrics with respect to season, and the applicability of their use to assess the ecological quality of wadeable streams. The quality status of most sites assigned by the various metrics was high using the spring invertebrate data, and an apparent considerable deviation in quality status occurred when the summer data was applied. Seasonal differences were noted using all the biotic indices and are attributed to the absence of pollution-sensitive groups in summer. Seasonal variability in the water quality status was particularly evident in acidic streams draining non-calcareous geologies with peaty soils that had relatively lower numbers of taxa. Some indices applied reflect a greater seasonal difference in the quality category assigned. The least amount of variability between seasons was obtained using the ASPT and the SSRS risk assessment system. Results suggest that reference status is reliably reflected in spring when more pollution-sensitive taxa were present, and that a new ecological quality assessment tool is required for application in summer when impacts may be most severe. This highly heterogeneous freshwater habitat seems to have too few taxa present in the summer to reliably determine the ecological quality of the stream using the available indices. Handling editor: R. Bailey     

Developing and applying a macroinvertebrate‐based multimetric index for urban rivers in the Niger Delta,Nigeria

Urban pollution of riverine ecosystem is a serious concern in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. No biomonitoring tool exists for the routine monitoring of effects of urban pollution on riverine systems within the region. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop and apply a macroinvertebrate‐based multimetric index for assessing water quality condition of impacted urban river systems in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Macroinvertebrate and physicochemical samples were collected from 11 stations in eight river systems. Based on the physicochemical variables, the stations were categorized into three impact categories namely least impacted stations (LIS), moderately impacted stations (MIS) and heavily impacted stations (HIS). Seventy‐seven (77) candidate metrics were tested and only five: Hemiptera abundance, %Coleoptera + Hemiptera, %Chironomidae + Oligochaeta, Evenness index and Logarithm of relative abundance of very large body size (>40–80 mm) were retained and integrated into the final Niger Delta urban multimetric index (MINDU). The validation dataset showed a correspondence of 83.3% between the index result and the physicochemically‐based classification for the LIS and a 75% correspondence for the MIS. A performance of 22.2% was recorded for the HIS. The newly developed MINDU proved useful as a biomonitoring tool in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and can thus be used by environmental managers and government officials for routine monitoring of rivers and streams subjected to urban pollution.     

Variability of the healthy human proteome

The aim of this review is to analyze results of studies on characteristics of protein variability and diversity of posttranslational modifications of proteins in healthy humans. Numerous studies have demonstrated that a proteomic profile is characterized by significant intra- and inter-individual variability, and quite often natural (“normal”) variability of some proteins can be comparable to changes observed in pathological processes. Results obtained by our research group have demonstrated high intra-individual variability of serum low-molecular subproteome of healthy volunteers, certified by a special medial committee (the coefficient of variation (CV) of 42.6%). The proteins characterized by high variability under normal conditions (e.g. haptoglobin — 0–40 mg/ml; lysozyme — 0.01–0.1 mg/ml; C-reactive protein — 0.01–0.3 mg/ml) cannot be considered as potential biomarkers of diseases. On the contrary, proteins and peptides characterized by insignificant dispersion in healthy population (such as albumin ( CV = 9%); transferrin-(CV = 14%); C3c complement (CV = 17%), α-1 acid glycoprotein (CV = 21%), α-2-macroglobulin (CV = 20%); transthyretin fragment (CV = 28.3%) and α2-HS-glycoprotein βchain (CV = 29.7%)) can provide valuable information about the state of health. Thus, studies of plasticity in the proteomic profiles of healthy humans will help to correct reference intervals used in clinical proteomics.     

Temporally variable macroinvertebrate–stone relationships in streams

Stones were used to sample macroinvertebrates and characterise microhabitats at monthly or bimonthly intervals in six Ecuadorian streams covering a gradient in four different stability measures and other stream characteristics. The physical variables current velocity, water depth, horizontal position, embeddedness and size were measured to characterise stone microhabitats and presumed to be affected by or related to physical impact during hydrological disturbances. My first objective was to analyse how density, the number of families and a richness measure (residuals from a power regression of families vs. individuals) were related to the physical characteristics of individual stone habitats. My second objective was to quantify temporal variability in fauna–stone relationships and to analyse if such variability was related to overall stability of stream reaches. Partial Least Squares (PLS) multiple regression analyses showed high temporal variability between sampling dates in factor loadings of specific stone micro habitat variables. In spite of this, there was a clear negative effect of depth and a positive effect of current on density and number of families. Stone size was consistently negatively related to density and positively related to number of families. Patterns were less clear for richness residuals. Simple linear regressions of fauna vs. stone parameters generally confirmed the results reached by the PLS analysis, although few of the regressions were significant. For all fauna–stone regressions the variability in slopes was much higher among sampling dates within streams (temporal variability) than among streams (spatial variability), and significant slopes were even inverted on different sampling dates. Although the coefficients of variation (CV) of slopes of a given combination of fauna parameter and stone variable from different sampling dates (n=9–11) were rarely correlated to any of the measures of stream stability, this study has demonstrated high temporal variability in fauna–stone relationships (CV’s of regression slopes). Consequently, temporally un-replicated studies of such relationships do not necessarily reveal general patterns.     

How much is enough? Adequate sample size for littoral macroinvertebrates in lowland lakes

Littoral macroinvertebrates are increasingly used for assessing the ecological status of lakes according to the EU Water Framework Directive. This requires harmonised sampling methods, but information on the appropriate spatial scale of the sampling as well as on the adequate sample sizes are mostly lacking. In this study, we compared the spatial variability of littoral (<1.2 m water depth) macroinvertebrate community composition within habitats and within sites to test whether habitat-specific sampling can reduce their spatial variability. Furthermore, we determined the sample size necessary to obtain maximum species richness for a given habitat type. Spatial variability of macroinvertebrate community composition was significantly lower within habitats than within sampling sites, except for communities of coarse woody debris. Species–area curves revealed that a sample size of 1 m² per habitat was not sufficient to obtain the maximum species richness due to the dominance of rare species, which suggests that compilation of taxon inventories may require more exhaustive sampling with sampling sizes substantially larger than 1 m². Separate analysis for species assigned to incidence classes showed that a mean area of 0.63 m² per habitat is sufficient to record all species with frequent and medium incidences, and 76% of the rare species. We conclude that habitat-specific sampling is an effective way to reduce the inherent spatial variability of littoral macroinvertebrate communities and that a sample size of 0.63 m² per habitat is sufficient to represent their dominant and subdominant elements. The application of this adequate sample size to other lake types than large oligotrophic lakes has to be exercised with caution, in particular if community composition and richness patterns differ. However, our results are based on data from lakes that represent the typical lake type found throughout the Central Baltic ecoregion ensuring its wider applicability in this ecoregion.     

A multiple watershed field test of hydrogeomorphic functional assessment of headwater streams—Variability in field measurements between independent teams

Ephemeral and intermittent headwater streams are under increasing pressure from disturbance and development. Rapid, repeatable assessment techniques are needed in order to gauge the condition of these stream systems. Several attributes of these headwater streams constrain the use of the most widely used macroinvertebrate or water quality stream assessment techniques. The hydrogeomorphic (HGM) functional assessment is a reference-based alternative technique. To evaluate this alternative, repeated assessments were conducted in eight high-gradient headwaters in West Virginia by four independent teams. Across-site and measurement variance among teams was assessed using a coefficient of variation (CV, expressed as percent). A variability of >50% CV, which suggests less repeatable results, occurred in only 13.8% of measurements, primarily associated with 2 of the 9 variables examined (snag density and substrate size). Between site measurement variance was the greatest at more highly disturbed sample locations, particularly with regard to the large woody debris, tree species richness, and channel bank erosion variables. Variables with the lowest CV were tree diameter, detrital cover, canopy cover, and channel embeddedness. Based on these results, measurements included when applying HGM approach to these streams should focus on direct measurements or directed estimates that yield a large response range across a spectrum of sites while maintaining consistent repeatability among different teams, with special attention paid to their use in highly disturbed sites.     

Refining a kick sampling strategy for the bioassessment of benthic macroinvertebrates in headwater streams

Small headwater streams constitute a large proportion of the river channel network in many parts of the world. In this study, two multihabitat kick sampling methods (60-second and 20-second) were compared across 10 small headwater streams in the southwest and east of Ireland in spring and summer 2009 to determine the influence of sampling on various benthic macroinvertebrates in headwater streams. The performance of each method, over time and replication, was examined using a range of benthic macroinvertebrate metrics, as well as the community composition and structure recorded by both methods. The ability to recruit taxa, as well as the field sampling and laboratory processing effort required for each method, was also assessed. Results indicated that both kick sampling methods generally recorded similar metric scores with the exception of taxonomic richness (t = 180 s and n = 9 replicates test) where the 20-second kicks consistently out preformed those calculated for the 60-second kicks. All other metrics compared generally performed equally as well regardless of the method used. Multivariate analysis of macroinvertebrate community assemblage, using SIMPROF, RELATE and CS-SMC analyses, further highlighted the high similarity in the macroinvertebrate assemblage recorded between both methods. Finally, the 20-second kicks recruited taxa as efficiently as 60-second kicks samples so long as replication was equal but required less sampling effort (NSE) and processing time. Therefore, the shorter 20-second kicks can be used to assess the ecological health of headwater streams, provided that adequate replication is adopted, resulting in significant effort, cost and time savings.     

Overview and application of the AQEM assessment system

The main objective of the European Union (EU) funded project AQEM¹was to develop a framework of an assessment system for streams in Europe based on benthic macroinvertebrates that fulfils the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive. Initial assessment methods for 28 European stream types and more generally applicable tools for stream biomonitoring in Europe were generated. The development of the system was based on a newly collected data set covering stream types in Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden. Altogether, 901 benthic invertebrate samples were taken using a standardised multi-habitat sampling procedure and a large number of parameters describing the streams and their catchments was recorded for all sampling sites. From the stream and catchment characteristics measures of stress were derived. A large number of metrics was tested independently for each of the stream types, to identify the response of each metric to degradation of a site. This process resulted in up to 18 core metrics for the individual stream types, which were combined into a different multimetric index in each country. The multimetric AQEM assessment system is used to classify a stream stretch into an Ecological Quality Class ranging from 5 (high quality) to 1 (bad quality) and often provides information on the possible causes of degradation. AQEM provides a taxa list of 9557 European macroinvertebrate taxa with associated autecological information, a software package for performing all the calculations necessary for applying the multimetric AQEM assessment system and a manual describing all aspects of the application of the system from site selection to data interpretation.     

Beyond Masses and Blooms: The Indicative Value of Oligochaetes

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) defines a framework for assessing water bodies in Europe in the future. The conditions in the Directive impose a strong demand for “new” assessment systems. The AQEM project developed an assessment system for European streams using macroinvertebrates. Almost 900 samples were taken in about 400 streams covering 29 stream types distributed over eight countries. The role of the Oligochaeta within this European database was analysed. Almost half a million specimens of oligochaetes were collected in 772 samples. Eight families, 41 genera and 69 species were recorded, although identification emphasised the families Tubificidae and Naididae. Three countries identified oligochaetes to species level, most others restricted their identifications to easy identifiable taxa. Numbers of specimens, species, genera and families differed strongly between the countries due to method, although standardised, and taxonomic knowledge. About 50% of all collected oligochaete taxa had assigned biological and ecological indicator values for metric calculation in the AQEM assessment system. A further refinement of this indication list as well as increased coverage of oligochaete taxa was advised. Weighted averaging was used to evaluate the relation between oligochaete distribution and ecological quality class. It was concluded that when higher taxonomic levels are used in assessment, the quality evaluation results become biased. Furthermore, oligochaetes can tell us much more about the ecological status of streams than is commonly assumed. Differences in ecological optima among Limnodrilus udekemianus, Ilyodrilus templetoni, Aulodrilus pluriseta, Nais communis, and Spirosperma ferox are shown.     

Allochthonous litter inputs, organic matter standing stocks, and organic seston dynamics in upland Panamanian streams: potential effects of larval amphibians on organic matter dynamics

Allochthonous inputs of detritus represent an important energy source for streams in forested regions, but dynamics of these materials are not well studied in neotropical headwater streams. As part of the tropical amphibian declines in streams (TADS) project, we quantified benthic organic matter standing stocks and organic seston dynamics in four Panamanian headwater streams, two with (pre-amphibian decline) and two without (post-decline) healthy amphibian assemblages. We also measured direct litterfall and lateral litter inputs in two of these streams. Continuous litterfall and monthly benthic samples were collected for 1 year, and seston was collected 1–3 times/month for 1 year at or near baseflow. Direct litterfall was similar between the two streams examined, ranging from 934–1,137 g DM m⁻² y⁻¹. Lateral inputs were lower, ranging from 140–187 g DM m⁻¹ y⁻¹. Dead leaves (57–60%), wood (24–29%), and green leaves (8–9%) contributed most to inputs, and total inputs were generally higher during the rainy season. Annual habitat-weighted benthic organic matter standing stocks ranged from 101–171 g AFDM m⁻² across the four study reaches, with ∼4 × higher values in pools compared to erosional habitats. Total benthic organic matter (BOM) values did not change appreciably with season, but coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM, >1 mm) generally decreased and very fine particulate organic matter (VFPOM, 1.6–250 μm) generally increased during the dry season. Average annual seston concentrations ranged from 0.2–0.6 mg AFDM l⁻¹ (fine seston, <754 μm >250 μm) and 2.0–4.7 mg AFDM l⁻¹ (very fine, <250 μm >1.6 μm), with very fine particles composing 85–92% of total seston. Quality of fine seston particles in the two reaches where tadpoles were present was significantly higher (lower C/N) than the two where tadpoles had been severely reduced (P = 0.0028), suggesting that ongoing amphibian declines in this region are negatively influencing the quality of particles exported from headwaters. Compared to forested streams in other regions, these systems receive relatively high amounts of allochthonous litter inputs but have low in-stream storage. Handling editor: J. Padisak