Phylogeny, Evolution and Historical Zoogeography of Ticks: A Review of Recent Progress

There has been much progress in our understanding of the phylogeny and evolution of ticks, particularly hard ticks, in the past 5 years. Indeed, a consensus about the phylogeny of the hard ticks has emerged. Our current working hypothesis for the phylogeny of ticks is quite different to the working hypothesis of 5 years ago. So that the classification reflects our knowledge of ticks, several changes to the nomenclature of ticks are imminent. One subfamily, the Hyalomminae, will probably be sunk, yet another, the Bothriocrotoninae n. subfamily, will be created. Bothriocrotoninae n. subfamily, and Bothriocroton n. genus, are being created to house an early-diverging (‘basal’) lineage of endemic Australian ticks that used to be in the genus Aponomma (ticks of reptiles). There has been progress in our understanding of the subfamily Rhipicephalinae. The genus Rhipicephalus is almost certainly paraphyletic with respect to the genus Boophilus. Thus, the genus Boophilus will probably become a subgenus of Rhipicephalus. This change to the nomenclature, unlike other options, will keep the name Boophilus in common usage. Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus may still called B. microplus, and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus may still be called B. annulatus, but the nomenclature will have been changed to reflect our knowledge of the phylogeny and evolution of these ticks. New insights into the historical zoogeography of ticks will also be presented. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Distribution and phylogenetic relationships of Australian glow-worms Arachnocampa (Diptera, Keroplatidae)

Glow-worms are bioluminescent fly larvae (Order Diptera, genus Arachnocampa) found only in Australia and New Zealand. Their core habitat is rainforest gullies and wet caves. Eight species are present in Australia; five of them have been recently described. The geographic distribution of species in Australia encompasses the montane regions of the eastern Australian coastline from the Wet Tropics region of northern Queensland to the cool temperate and montane rainforests of southern Australia and Tasmania. Phylogenetic trees based upon partial sequences of the mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase II and 16S mtDNA show that populations tend to be clustered into allopatric geographic groups showing overall concordance with the known species distributions. The deepest division is between the cool-adapted southern subgenus, Lucifera, and the more widespread subgenus, Campara. Lucifera comprises the sister groups, A. tasmaniensis, from Tasmania and the newly described species, A. buffaloensis, found in a high-altitude cave at Mt Buffalo in the Australian Alps in Victoria. The remaining Australian glow-worms in subgenus Campara are distributed in a swathe of geographic clusters that extend from the Wet Tropics in northern Queensland to the temperate forests of southern Victoria. Samples from caves and rainforests within any one geographic location tended to cluster together within a clade. We suggest that the morphological differences between hypogean (cave) and epigean (surface) glow-worm larvae are facultative adaptations to local microclimatic conditions rather than due to the presence of cryptic species in caves.     

PRESCOTTIELLA,A NEW GENUS OF ASYMMETRICAL DESMIDS (CHLOROPHYCEAE)1

Bipolar asymmetry has been considered a morphological characteristic sufficient for differentiation of genera among the Desmidiaceae. Therefore, Micrasterias sudanensis Grönbl., Prowse & Scott, the only species of Micrasterias showing such asymmetry, is made the type of a new genus, Prescottiella, gen. nov.     

Molecular phylogeny,morphology and toxigenicity of Ostreopsis cf. siamensis (Dinophyceae) from temperate south‐east Australia

Ostreopsis is a genus of dinoflagellates that includes species producing palytoxin and structurally related compounds. The distribution of Ostreopsis species in Australia is largely unknown, but they have been reported from north Queensland (18^° S) to Tasmania (41–43^° S). Ostreopsis spp. have been recurrently reported from estuaries around New South Wales, with persistent occurrences in Merimbula Lake inlet throughout the year. We isolated and characterized a strain of Ostreopsis cf. siamensis using light and scanning electron microscopy as well as molecular sequences of small subunit (SSU), large subunit (LSU) and ITS regions of ribosomal DNA. The strain grew significantly faster in low nutrient concentrations. Palytoxin‐like compounds were produced by the strain, as determined by chemical analysis, and the LD ₅₀ of the cell extract by intraperitoneal injection in mice was 25.1 mg kg^?1. This is the first comprehensive molecular, morphological and toxicological study of an Ostreopsis species from Australian waters. Increasing reports of Ostreopsis from temperate waters suggest an empirical need to expand the knowledge of their diversity and distribution to aid aquaculture monitoring in Australian estuaries.     

A new opiine (Hymenoptera,Braconidae) from Australia with discussion of Diachasma Foerster

A new species of Opiinae, Diachasma dentatum Shirley, Restuccia & Ly, is described from Australia. This species is similar to several other Australian opiines previously described or included in the genus Diachasma, but the mandibles are unusually broad, nearly exodont. Notable differences between Australian and Palaearctic Diachasma are discussed. Diachasma tasmaniae Fischer, 1995, originally described from Tasmania and New South Wales, is newly recorded from Victoria. Diachasma rufipes Szépligeti, 1905 is transferred to Notiopambolus, new combination.     

Amphicreadium n. g. (Digenea: Lepocreadiidae) from monacanthid fishes (Tetraodontiformes) from the coast of northern Tasmania

A new lepocreadiid genus, Amphicreadium, is erected for the species A. denspeniculus n. sp. from Acanthaluteres vittiger and for an unnamed species from Meuschenia freycineti, both from off northern Tasmania. The new genus is distinguished from all other members of its family by its amphistomatous body plan.     

Streblocerus superserricaudatus sp. nov. from Venezuela

A new species of the genus Streblocerus is described from Venezuela and compared with European, Newfoundland and Australian specimens. The geographical distribution of the genus is discussed.     

A description of Mallomonas marsupialis nov. sp. (Synurophyceae), a new chrysophyte from Australia, with comments on the endemicity of Australian freshwater algae

Mallomonas marsupialis is described and illustrated by TEM and SEM micrographs, being found in Australia on sub-tropical Fraser Island and in cool-temperate Tasmania. Its taxonomic location within the genus Mallomonas (sect. Mallomonopsis, ser. Marsupiales) is discussed, together with its inclusion in a suite of unusual endemic algae which have been described from Australian sites largely protected from human interference.     

Morphologically tortured: taxonomic placement of an Antarctic springtail (Collembola: Isotomidae) misguided by morphology and ecology

An endemic springtail from northern Victoria Land, Antarctica, was recently moved from Desoria to the new genus Chionobora, erected for a new species C. amila from lakes in the central highland plateau of Tasmania. This new combination for klovstadi was based on characters similar to both species (although not definitive) and an apparent preference for aquatic habitats. Here we show that neither of these inferences are valid. We sampled from two lake localities to obtain C. amila, and in doing so, we describe its habitat as riparian, not aquatic. We compared specimens of C. amila with klovstadi within a phylogeny using three genes (mtDNA COI, 18S rDNA, D1‐D5 of 28S rDNA) for 59 Isotominae terminals. We show that klovstadi is not closely related to the genus Chionobora that has closest affinities to the genus Isotomurus. As previously identified, klovstadi has no close affinities to any existing genus in Isotominae. Based on additional ecological, morphological and molecular evidence, we erect a new genus for klovstadi, Kaylathalia gen. n.     

Support for vicariant origins of the New Zealand Onychophora

Aim The distribution of Onychophora across the southern continents has long been considered the result of vicariance events. However, it has recently been hypothesized that New Zealand was completely inundated during the late Oligocene (25–22 Ma) and therefore that the entire biota is the result of long-distance dispersal. We tested this assumption using phylogenetic and molecular dating of DNA sequence data from Onychophora. Location New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Chile (South America). Methods We obtained DNA sequence data from the nuclear genes 28S and 18S rRNA to reconstruct relationships among species of Peripatopsidae (Onychophora). We performed molecular dating under a Bayesian relaxed clock model with a range of prior distributions using the rifting of South America and South Africa as a calibration. Results Our phylogenetic trees revealed that the New Zealand genera Ooperipatellus and Peripatoides, together with selected Australian genera (Euperipatoides, Phallocephale and an undescribed genus from Tasmania), form a monophyletic group that is the sister group to genera from Chile (Metaperipatus) and South Africa (Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus). The relaxed clock dating analyses yielded mean divergence times from 71.3 to 78.9 Ma for the split of the New Zealand Peripatoides from their Australian sister taxa. The 0.95 Bayesian posterior intervals were very broad and ranged from 24.5 to 137.6 Ma depending on the prior assumptions. The mean divergence of the New Zealand species of Ooperipatellus from the Australian species Ooperipatellus insignis was estimated at between 39.9 and 46.2 Ma, with posterior intervals ranging from 9.5 to 91.6 Ma. Main conclusions The age of Peripatoides is consistent with long-term survival in New Zealand and implies that New Zealand was not completely submerged during the Oligocene. Ooperipatellus is less informative on the question of continuous land in the New Zealand region because we cannot exclude a post-Oligocene divergence. The great age of Peripatoides is consistent with a vicariant origin of this genus resulting from the rifting of New Zealand from the eastern margin of Gondwana and supports the assumptions of previous authors who considered the Onychophora to be a relict component of the New Zealand biota.     

A mini review on the antimicrobial peptides isolated from the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hylarana</Emphasis> (Amphibia: Anura) with a proposed nomenclature for amphibian skin peptides

Hylarana is a well established frog genus coming under the family Ranidae. An increasing number of antimicrobial peptides have been isolated and characterized from the skin of frogs of this genus. This review covers the antimicrobial peptides reported so far from the frogs of Hylarana genus and to propose a consistent system of nomenclature for amphibian skin peptides. Multiple sequence alignment of the skin peptides from Hylarana genus has grouped them into six peptide families, and three bioactive peptides. Existing nomenclature of amphibian antimicrobial peptides is species centered with no implication to the genus which can lead to disparities, when frogs with same species name belonging to different genus have to be named. As per the proposed system the peptide should have the parent peptide name (e.g. Brevinin-1) followed by two uppercase letter of the genus, if two genera begin with the same letter–first letter should be the same followed by an appropriate second letter (e.g. HU for Huia and HM for Humenerana). This is succeeded by species name in lower case-orthologous peptides from different species may be characterized by the initial letter of that species, when two species begin with the same initial letter, second letter should be used appropriately (e.g. HLat for Hylarana aurata and HLan for Hylarana aurantiaca). Paralogs belonging to the same peptide family are assigned by numbers.     

Notocotylidae (Digenea) from the Australian water rat Hydromys chrysogaster Geoffroy, 1804 (Muridae)

Notocotylus johnstoni n. sp., N. imbricatus (Looss, 1893) Szidat, 1935 and Catatropis nicolli n. sp. are described from the large intestine and caecum of the Australian water rat Hydromys chrysogaster (Rodentia: Muridae). The water rat is the only known mammalian host of notocotylids in Australia. N. imbricatus, recorded from Tasmania, is a cosmopolitan species which elsewhere uses birds and bithyniid snails as definitive and intermediate hosts respectively. In Tasmania bithyniid snails are unknown and the only known definitive host is a mammal. In view of this it is possible that the material examined represents a species distinct from N. imbricatus. Catatropis gallinulae Johnston, 1928 is found to have three rows of ventral papillae and thus to belong to the genus Notocotylus. The new combination Notocotylus gallinulae (Johnston, 1928) is a senior homonym of Notocotylus gallinulae El-Naffar & Khalifa, 1983 which is replaced with Notocotylus elnaffari nom. nov.     

Scorpidotrema longistipes n. g., n. sp. (Digenea: Opecoelidae) from Scorpis georgiana (Teleostei: Scorpididae) from southern Western Australia

Scorpidotrema longistipes n. g., n. sp. is described from the intestine of Scorpis georgiana Valenciennes (Scorpididae) from off Point Peron, Western Australia. The new genus is distinguished by the combination of a remarkably long and retractable ventral sucker peduncle, a possible uroproct, well-developed cirrus-sac and a uterine seminal receptacle. The subfamilial relationships of the new genus are troublesome. It incorporates features of the Opecoelinae, Stenakrinae and Plagioporinae. The absence of a canalicular seminal receptacle suggests a relationship with the Opecoelinae and Stenakrinae, whereas the well-developed cirrus-sac suggests a relationship with the Plagioporinae and Stenakrinae. The overall arrangement of the gonads is not similar to that of existing genera of Stenakrinae. It is concluded that the genus is best placed in the Stenakrinae although that subfamily may now be an artificial assemblage. This new genus forms part of a distinctive fauna of trematodes restricted to Australian southern temperate fishes.     

INTRODUCED MACROALGAE IN THE AUSTRALIAN REGION: CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

Introductions of non‐native macroalgae and the subsequent displacement of native species are globally becoming more frequent. The algal genera Undaria, Sargassum, Caulerpa and Codium have been identified as being particularly invasive. An overview on the present knowledge on macroalgal introductions in the Australian region is presented and options for management are discussed, mostly using examples from studies on the introduced Japanese kelp, Undaria pinnatifida. Undaria pinnatifida was first detected in Tasmania, Australia in the early 1980's. Since then, its range has expanded despite eradication efforts. Long distance jumps appear to be the major mode of spread of U. pinnatifida in Tasmania. Studies are underway to distinguish the relative importance of spore dispersal, drift of adult plants and anthropogenic factors in spreading this invasive kelp. Although information on the real impacts of U. pinnatifida and other introduced macroalgae is sparse, the development of management and control strategies is of vital importance to prevent further spread and translocation of these “pest” species.     

STUDIES OF PACIFIC ISLAND PLANTS. XXVII. THE GENUS GARDENIA (RUBIACEAE) IN THE FIJIAN REGION

The genus Gardenia (Rubiaceae), noted for its beautiful and fragrant flowers, is widespread throughout the Old World tropics. In the Fijian Region it is represented by eleven indigenous species, of which eight are endemic to Fiji; an additional oriental species is occasionally found in cultivation. The taxonomic relationships and nomenclature of these species are discussed, and one new Fijian species, G. anapetes, is described.     

THE BIRDS OF TASMANIA: ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

SUMMARY Tasmania, about the size of Ireland, separated from the Australian mainland by 140 miles of sea, and isolated for about the last 12,000 years, has 104 species of native breeding land-birds, with the addition of ten introduced species. The environment is described; in particular the vegetation is classified into nine natural types and three produced by European man; and the distribution of the bird species among these is defined and discussed. The other vertebrates are briefly considered. No extinction is definitely known to have taken place as a result of European settlement except of the Tasmanian Emu (and of course Tasmanian Man). An attempt is made to reconstruct the Late Pleistocene history of Tasmania and its vegetation, with special reference to the Last Glaciation, when the island would have been joined to the mainland. When the avifauna is divided into categories, water-birds, raptors, etc., it is found to have much the same proportional composition as the Australian mainland avifaunas with which it is compared, though it consists of many fewer species. The vegetation types of the colder and wetter areas of Tasmania house far fewer species of birds than the drier and warmer habitats. The 104 breeding species include 14 endemics, which are considered in detail, and 27 endemic subspecies. As shown by comparison with other islands, the total proportionate endemism is extraordinarily high for a recent continental island (though it is actually lower than that in the remote ecological island formed by the sclerophyll of southwestern Western Australia). A contributory cause may be that Tasmania is not regularly visited by land-birds from the continent (though at least one-fifth of the Tasmanian species are partial or total migrants in winter). The most noteworthy endemics are two monotypic genera, Lathamus and Acanthornis, and the Native Hen Tribonyx mortierii, which has become flightless apparently in the face of a formidable array of local predators. Considerations of climate and habitat suggest that at least half the avifauna, including 19 of the endemic subspecies and six of the members of superspecies, arrived in Tasmania some time after the amelioration of the Last Glaciation began, some 18,000 years ago. Geographical considerations suggest that four of those six members of superspecies existed in their present form when the land-bridge to the mainland was cut, 12,000 years ago. Certain habitats, widespread over southeastern Australia during the glaciation, are now virtually confined to Tasmania where they form the stronghold of certain species, such as the Pink Robin Petroica rodinogaster, which occur only as relicts on the mainland. The endemic Scrub Tit Acanthornis magnus is practically confined to such habitats, where its ecology suggests it would have been well adapted to glacial conditions. Among the local endemics there is a strong tendency for colouration to be more saturated than on the continent of Australia (Gloger's rule) but there is less consistency in tendency to greater size (Bergmann's rule). A noteworthy proportion of the Tasmanian species have duller plumage than their mainland relatives, usually with an assimilation to female or juvenile plumage—unexpected in an island as big as Tasmania with so considerable an avifauna.     

Tasmanomysis oculata n.g. n.sp. from Tasmanian waters (Crustacea: Mysidacea: Mysini)

Tasmanomysis oculata n.g. n.sp. belonging to the Tribe Mysini is described from the coastal waters of southern Tasmania. This new genus superficially resembles the monospecific genus Arthromysis Colosi,1924 known only from the Straits of Magellan. The form of the pleopods in the male together with the segmentation of the thoracic legs and shape of the telson clearly distinguish the two genera.     

Examining the phylogeny of the Australasian Lymnaeidae (Heterobranchia: Pulmonata: Gastropoda) using mitochondrial, nuclear and morphological markers

We examined the species groups relationships of the freshwater snail genus Austropeplea using mitochondrial, nuclear and morphological markers in addition to traditional methods of shell shape analysis. Based primarily on the results of a combined molecular and morphological analysis, samples of the nominal species A. tomentosa form distinct lineages. The New Zealand populations of A. tomentosa are a very distinct lineage from any of the Australian populations attributed to A. tomentosa. Furthermore, within the Australian group, three lineages, south Australia, Tasmania and eastern Australia, appear to have undergone recent and/or rapid speciation events. Samples assigned to A. lessoni were resolved as two distinct lineages, representing the eastern and northern Australian populations. Kutikina hispida was resolved within the Australian A. tomentosa clade. Molecular results for A. viridis suggests that it is also composed of at least two distinct lineages that could be treated as species. Incongruence observed between the single mitochondrial, nuclear and morphological topologies highlight the importance of using a number of different datasets in the delimitation of species-group taxa.     

When is a native species invasive? Incursion of a novel predatory marsupial detected using molecular and historical data

Aim

Range expansions facilitated by humans or in response to local biotic or abiotic stressors provide the opportunity for species to occupy novel environments. Classifying the status of newly expanded populations can be difficult, particularly when the timing and nature of the range expansion are unclear. Should native species in new habitats be considered invasive pests or actively conserved? Here, we present an analytical framework applied to an Australian marsupial, the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), a species that preys upon on an endangered parrot in Tasmania, and whose provenance was uncertain.

Location

Tasmania, Australia.

Methods

We conducted an extensive search of historical records for sugar glider occurrences in Tasmania. Source material included museum collection data, early European expedition logs, community observation records, and peer‐reviewed and grey literature. To determine the provenance of the Tasmanian population, we sequenced two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene in Tasmanian animals (n = 27) and in individuals across the species' native range. We then estimated divergence times between Tasmania and southern Australian populations using phylogenetic and Bayesian analyses.

Results

We found no historical evidence of sugar gliders occurring in Tasmania prior to 1835. All Tasmanian individuals (n = 27) were genetically identical at the three genes surveyed here with those individuals being 0.125% divergent from individuals from a population in Victoria. Bayesian analysis of divergence between Tasmanian individuals and southern Australian individuals suggested a recent introduction of sugar gliders into Tasmania from southern Australia.

Main conclusions

Molecular and historical data demonstrate that Tasmanian sugar gliders are a recent, post‐European, anthropogenic introduction from mainland Victoria. This result has implications for the management of the species in relation to their impact on an endangered parrot. The analytical framework outlined here can assist environmental managers with the complex task of assessing the status of recently expanded or introduced native species.

     

Description of Antichthomysis notidana n.g. n.sp. from southern Tasmania. (Crustacea: Mysidacea: Leptomysini)

Antichthomysis notidana n.g. n. sp. belonging to the Tribe Leptomysini is described from the coastal waters of south-eastern Tasmania. The genus is at present monospecific.