THE BIRDS OF LANGEBAAN LAGOON

Data are presented on breeding success of Red Bishops (Euplectes orix) collected over four breeding seasons at a colony in the Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Overall hatching and fledging success were 53.8% and 26.0% of all eggs laid, respectively, and the overall mean number of fledglings per breeding attempt was 0.77. Hatching and fledging success varied significantly among seasons, with both clutch and brood losses due to predation being the main reason for the observed differences. Hatching success also differed significantly among clutch sizes, being highest for four-egg clutches (63.2%), intermediate for three-egg clutches (55.5%) and lowest for two-egg clutches and five-egg clutches (33.2% and 34.3%, respectively). However, fledging success was not significantly different among clutch sizes. The mean number of fledglings per breeding attempt was 0.44 for two-egg clutches, 0.80 for three-egg clutches, 1.10 for four-egg clutches, and 0.57 for five-egg clutches. The height of accepted nests (i.e.nests in which at least one egg was laid) was significantly lower than the height of nests not accepted. In addition, accepted nests in which eggs hatched and young fledged were significantly lower than accepted nests in which no eggs hatched and no young fledged. These overall effects of nest height on nest acceptance and hatching and fledging success were, however, due only to nests built above water, since no such effects were found when nests built above ground (i.e.on dry land) were analysed separately. I detected no effect of nest coverage on the probability of a nest being accepted, nor was there any effect of nest coverage on hatching or fledging success. Nests above water were significantly more likely to be accepted than nests above ground; however, hatching and fledging success of nests that were accepted did not differ significantly between nests built above water and those built above ground.     

Aspects of the reproductive ecology of the Hamerkop Scopus umbretta in central Mali

In a 4-year study of Hamerkops in central Mali, territories of breeding pairs overlapped and most clutches were laid in the late rainy or early dry seasons. Clutches averaged 4–8 eggs. Different pairs laid eggs having, on average, different dimensions. Eggs laid in the late rainy and early dry seasons were larger than those laid at other times. Eggs weighed, at 27-8 g, about 6% of adult female weight. Hatching success was 79% with a fledging rate of eggs hatched of 53%. Successful nests fledged 27 young but for all completed clutches the fledging rate was 0'9. Young hatched early in the sequence had a higher survival rate than those hatched later. Mean age at fledging was 47 days. Pairs fledged between 0–5 and 0–9 young per year.     

4. UNUSUAL EXPERIENCES WITH BIRDS

Earlé, R. A. 1989. Breeding biology of the Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa. Ostrich 60: 13–21.

The two races of the Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa seem to have separate breeding seasons with the northern race H. s. gordoni breeding April-July, while most records for the nominate race fall in October-February. All nests studied were in concrete culverts less than 1 m high. Eggs laid in second clutches by individual females weighed significantly less than eggs laid in first clutches. Eggs hatched on average 16,2 days after incubation started or 18–21 days after the eggs were laid. Only females incubated. Chicks fledged 23–25 days after hatching and reached a maximum body mass of about 31,5 g on day 18 before a steady decline in mass until fledging. Most nesting failures resulted from infertile eggs or starvation of young in the nest (16,2% of all young starved). Overall breeding success was 60,6%. In all, 81,8% of first clutches produced fledglings but only 44,4% of second clutches. Over a three year period 4,9 young were produced per pair breeding in the area (1,6 young/pair/breeding season).     

Effect of brood size and hatching sequence on prefledging mortality of Sandwich terns: why lay two eggs?

The mortality of Sandwich tern Sterna sandvicensis chicks held in enclosures was studied in colonies on Griend, in the Dutch Wadden Sea, from 1992 to 1999, and on Hirsholm, in the Danish Kattegat, in 1997. Survival of chicks until fledging was 73% for chicks hatching from first-laid eggs or single-egg clutches and 59–64% for partially hatched two-egg clutches, whereas 6% of second hatchlings survived until fledging. Less than 2% of all two-chick broods actually fledged two chicks. Because 18% of the two-egg clutches only hatched one egg, 7% of fledglings of two-egg clutches originated from a second-laid egg. In nests where both eggs hatched, the number of chicks was usually reduced soon after hatching. Within five days of hatching more than 50% of the second hatchlings died of starvation or were preyed upon. It seems that overproduction commonly occurs in Sandwich terns and that investment in a surplus egg mainly serves as an insurance mechanism. On Griend and Hirsholm, chick productivity of two-egg clutches was somewhat higher than for one-egg clutches. Undernourishment was an important cause of death, either directly by starvation or by selective predation of chicks in poor condition. This, in combination with earlier, studies suggests that Sandwich tern parents on Griend are exposed to severe food stress.     

Breeding biology of the Barn Owl Tyto alba in central Mali

Data were obtained on 178 clutches of African Barn Owls in central Mali from four breeding seasons during 1979–1983. Significantly more clutches were laid in 1979–1980 and significantly fewer in 1980– 1981 than the average for the 4 years and there were significantly more clutches laid in the middle period of the annual breeding season. The egg volume was significantly smaller at the beginning of the breeding season and significantly larger in the middle than the overall mean with eggs of second clutches being larger than those of first clutches. The clutch size was 605 eggs of which 479 hatched. The number of young fledged per successful nest was 319 and was 1 83 for all nesting attempts. The month was the only variable shown to affect significantly the clutch size, eggs hatched and fledging rate, the highest success rates being associated with the middle of the breeding period. The average interval between the hatching of eggs was 2–31 days. Survival rates (47'1%) to fledging were significantly affected by year (1981–1982 being the least) and month (mid-season birds the best). The order of hatching significantly affected age at death or disappearance, the first-hatched birds surviving the longest. The year significantly affected age at fledging, the young from the year in which most clutches were laid leaving the nest at the youngest age and those associated with the year having the least number of clutches remaining in the nest the longest. The month of hatching also affected fledging age, birds at the extremes of the breeding season fledging at older ages. The discussion compares these data with those from elsewhere.     

Breeding performance of Indian Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone in the paddy crop agroecosystem

The breeding performance of the Indian Sarus Crane Grusantigone antigone Linn. was studied in the agriculturallandscape of Gujarat, India during 1996. Detailed records of a total of22 nests were compiled from egg-laying till fledging. Eleven clutches(50.0%) produced at least one chick. Ten clutches (45.45%) weredestroyed due to various mortality factors, and one clutch (4.50%)failed to hatch. Of the 10 pairs whose clutches were destroyed, at leastfour renested. Renesting in the wild was reported for the first time.Egg destruction was mainly due to flooding (12.20%), predation (21.95%)and conflicts with farmers (14.64%). Predation accounted for 31.58% ofchick mortality. The egg and chick mortality factors identified wereunique to the agricultural ecosystem. The number of chicks that hatched andof chicks fledged per nest did not differ significantly in differentmicrohabitats. Hatching success was higher in non-cultivableagricultural marshland (68.18%) compared to paddy cultivated marshland(38.48%), mainly due to human disturbance and higher predation risk.Overall breeding success was 19.51%. Juveniles comprised only 8.96% ofthe total number of Sarus Cranes sighted during the post-breedingperiod. One of the causes of poor breeding performance in theagricultural landscape was increasing conflict with the farmers, whosuffer economic loss due to nesting in the crop field. If compensated,farmers may help in Sarus Crane conservation efforts.     

A more informative method for analyzing reproductive success

ABSTRACT.   Few investigators have examined how a female's prior history (i.e., number of clutches laid previously and whether those nesting attempts were successful or not) might influence the success of a particular clutch. Our objective was to determine the seasonal change in the mean number of fledglings successfully leaving nests in a population of Prairie Warblers ( Dendroica discolor ). To do so, we calculated the success of each clutch in the laying sequence (i.e., first, second, third, …, n ^th) and sorted them further by whether they were laid before (first-brood clutches) or after (second-brood clutches) the first brood fledged. In our sample population of 70 females we knew the fate of all clutches laid during a breeding season. Although the number of fledglings per successful clutch varied slightly, the probability that a clutch would be successful (i.e., produce at least one fledgling) and the number of fledglings per nest attempt increased during the breeding season. Thus, later clutches were more productive than earlier clutches. The low probability of producing a successful first clutch early in the breeding season would seem to favor selection for females that wait until later in the season to begin breeding. However, the seasonal reproductive success of females may be more dependent on breeding early (increasing the number of clutches laid in a season) than on the higher probability of success with later clutches. Our results indicate that further study of seasonal changes in reproductive success and their causes is needed.     

Breeding success and chronology of Wood Storks Mycteria americana in northern and central Florida, U.S.A.

The breeding success and chronology of Wood Storks Mycteria americana were studied at eight colonies in northern and central Florida during 1981–1985. Mean ± s.d. clutch size for all colony-years was 3.07 ± 0.56 (n = 2694 nests), with three-egg clutches (72%) most frequent. Mean clutch size among all colonies and years ranged from 2.73 ± 0.55 to 3.41 ± 0.61. Many colonies exhibited significant negative trends in clutch size with, hatching date because of a proportional decrease in four-egg clutches later in the season. Mean colony clutch size was not correlated with nest numbers, nesting density or mean hatching date within most years. Mean ± s.d. number of fledglings for all colonies and years was 1.29 ± 1.16 fledglings per nest (n = 2812 nests). Mean annual fledging rates in colonies ranged from 0 (colony failed) to 2.66 fledglings per nest. Most breeding failure occurred prior to egg hatching, and the second highest mortality occurred between hatching and 2 weeks of age. Four-egg clutches fledged more storks than three-egg clutches, which in turn were more successful than two-egg clutches. However, all clutch sizes showed similar fledgling per egg rates. The seasonal decline in productivity was associated proportionally with smaller clutch sizes later in the breeding season. An increase in mean hatching date was correlated with an increase in latitude. There was greater within-year breeding synchrony among colonies than interyear breeding synchrony within each colony. Breeding synchrony was not correlated with mean hatching date, latitude, longitude, nest numbers or nesting density.     

Breeding ecology of the African Spoonbill Platalea alba in the Free State,South Africa

Kopij, G. 1997. Breeding ecology of the African Spoonbill Platalea alba in the Free State, South Africa. Ostrich 68 (2–4): 77–79.

The breeding ecology of the African Spoonbill is surprisingly little known. In the Free State, the number of nesting African Spoonbills appears to have declined; 120 nests in 11 colonies were located in 1972–1973, compared to 32 nests in four colonies in 1993–1996 (though this later survey may have missed a few small colonies). In 1976–1977, a colony with 15 active spoonbill nests was monitored for an entire breeding season. Mean clutch size was 2.6 (n = 15); 56% of eggs hatched; 91% of hatched eggs resulted in fledglings; and chicks fledged from 53% of nests. The main food of spoonbill chicks was frogs, mainly Rana angolensis and Xenopus laevis, and aquatic invertebrates.     

Breeding biology of rooks (Corvus frugilegus L.) in Hawke's Bay,New Zealand

Abstract

Three rookeries in Hawke's Bay were studied during 1966–68. First or replacement clutches were started between 26 August and 23 October. First clutches averaged 4.3 eggs and replacements 3.7 eggs. The mean size of first clutches varied between years from 4.1 to 4.6 eggs. Incubation took 17–18 days. Most losses occurred around hatching, when about 40% of the eggs or young were lost. Incubated eggs and small nestlings incurred losses of 20% and 10% respectively, and all nestlings older than 10 days survived to at least 20 days. On average, 1.4 young were reared per nest in which eggs were laid; successful nests averaged 2.2 young. First clutches averaged 1.3 young (2.4 per successful first clutch). During the season, mean clutch size declined from 4.2 to 3.5, the mean number of young hatched declined from 2.0 to 0.6 per clutch, and the mean number of young fledged from all clutches declined from 1.3 to 0.4 per clutch. Mean nestling weight increased with age from 14 g on the first day after hatching to 360 g on the 19th day. The causes of egg and nestling mortality and the adaptiveness of clutch size are discussed.     

Effects of clutch size and egg-laying order on the breeding success in the Little Tern Sterna albifrons on the Nakdong Estuary, Republic of Korea

Survivorship of Little Tern Sterna albifrons eggs and chicks was followed on an islet in the Nakdong Estuary, Republic of Korea, in 1995 and 1996. Mean egg size and incubation period were significantly different between the 2 years. The maximum clutch size was three eggs, and the second egg in the clutch often hatched earlier than the first, while most of the third eggs hatched last. In 1996, when the fate of 249 eggs from 106 nests was followed for 40 days, hatching success, fledging success and breeding success were 77%, 40% and 31%, respectively. High mortality occurred in the early chick stage, mostly because of rain and predation by Weasels Mustela sibirica. The breeding success per egg was 14% in one-egg clutches, 28% in two-egg clutches and 34% in three-egg clutches. This difference was mainly attributed to the lower hatching success in the smaller clutches. In three-egg clutches, the third egg showed significantly lower breeding success than siblings. The main foods of the Little Tern were Tridentiger obscurus, Engraulis japonicus, Hyporhamphus intermedius, Acanthogobius flavimanus (all fish), Palaemon sp. and Crangon affinis (shrimps). The feeding frequency was, apparently, not affected by time of day and age of chicks but was probably influenced by weather conditions. Newly hatched chicks failed to eat 25% of the prey brought to them, although this decreased with the age of the chicks.     

Does variation of sex ratio enhance reproductive success of offspring in tawny owls (Strix aluco)

Tawny owls, Strix aluco, laid female-biased clutches on territories with more abundant prey (field voles) in June, the month that chicks fledge. This appeared to enhance the subsequent reproductive success of fledglings, as in 1995 there was a significant correlation between the number of chicks fledged by adult females and the June vole abundance in the territory on which they were reared as chicks. This relationship did not hold for males. Since tawny owls lay eggs in March, these results indicate that owls are able to predict the June vole numbers on their territory, and respond by producing more of the sex most likely to gain a long-term benefit when resources are good.     

Correlates of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo density and breeding success in the West Midlands

Buzzard density and breeding success in relation to habitat and Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus abundance was studied in the West Midlands from 1994 to 1996. We found densities of 81 and 22 territorial pairs per 100 km² in two areas 40 km apart; the former is the highest density yet recorded in Europe. High Buzzard breeding densities were associated with high proportions of unimproved pasture and mature woodland within estimated territories. Buzzards laid earlier clutches at lower altitudes and with high proportions of unimproved pasture close to nests. Large clutches and high numbers of fledged young were associated with high Rabbit abundance close to nests. Most nest failures occurred during incubation and were probably mainly due to corvid predation. Brood reduction was associated with low proportions of deciduous woodland close to nests and small clutch sizes, although the causes of chick mortality were uncertain. Rabbits were the main prey item found at nests with passerines, especially young corvids, also appearing frequently.     

Reproductive ecology of Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes (Garrulax henrici) in Tibet

ABSTRACT.   Most species in the genus Garrulax are found in subtropical or tropical areas of southeastern Asia, with few species adapted to temperate or high-altitude climates. We examined the behavior and reproductive ecology of Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes ( G. henrici ) from 1999 to 2005 at Xiongse Valley, Tibet. Cup-shaped nests located 0.4–2.6 m above ground were found in 13 different species of plants, with roses and barberries the most common nest substrates. Laughing thrushes were socially monogamous and no territorial behaviors were observed. Egg-laying was initiated in early May and ended by late August, with clutch sizes of either 2 or 3 eggs     . Incubation started with the first egg being laid and the incubation period lasted 13–17 d     . Young fledged at 14–16 d posthatching     . Of 38 nesting attempts with known fates, at least one nestling hatched in 32 nests (84%) and at least one young fledged from 21 nests (55%). The mean number of fledglings per successful nest was 2.2 (range 1–3; N = 21 nests). Compared to lowland congeners, Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes produced smaller clutches and larger eggs. Such differences suggest that laughing thrushes may invest more energy in fewer offspring at higher altitudes, as reported for other avian species and populations, and this may represent an adaptive response to high-altitude environments where climates are harsh and food availability may be limiting.     

THE BIOLOGY OF OYSTERCATCHERS HAEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS ON SKOKHOLM ISLAND, S. WALES

A population of about 50 pairs of Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus nesting on Skokholm Island, S. Wales, was studied between 1963 and 1965. Other information on Skokholm Oyster-catchers over the last 25 years was also analysed.
The adults were trapped, colour-banded and sexed by bill measurements. With few exceptions, birds kept the same mates and territories from one season to the next. Apparently the male is responsible for retaining the territory. Some Oystercatchers breed at three years but most do not do so until four or five. It seems that there is a high population pressure, preventing young birds from establishing themselves. The annual adult survival in the two years was 88% and 90% respectively.
The average clutch-size on Skokholm is known for many years, and varied annually between 2^.5 and 3.3. The number of c/4 varied greatly from year to year. There was a seasonal decline in mean clutch-size and also in egg and nest success. Predation, especially by Lesser Black-backed Gulls, was the main cause of egg loss.
In 1963, 36.7% of hatched chicks fledged and 59% in 1964. The larger clutches were more successful and produced more surviving young than did the more numerous smaller clutches. Early hatched young are more successful than later young.
The average yearly mortality of birds between fledging and breeding was 40%.     

The breeding success of the Indian Cattle Egret Ardeola ibis in eastern Australia

Over a three year study the Cattle Egret's mean clutch size was 3.6 eggs and 81% of nests with eggs produced one or more fledglings. Breeding success averaged 2.1 chicks to fledgling stage, and between 1.5 and 1 8 fledged per nesting pair. These data illustrate the breeding performance of a population in an expansion phase of its history. The determinants of growth of immigrant Cattle Egret populations are sought in a comparison of its breeding parameters in different lands. A significant reduction in clutch size occurred after about two-thirds of clutches had been laid each year. One-year-old birds nesting for the first time are implicated in this reduction.     

Density-dependent decline of breeding success in an introduced, increasing mute swan Cygus olor population

An increasing population of the mute swan Cygnus olor , was studied from its very establishment in 1976 until 1998. As the number of pairs increased, there was a decline in all production parameters, including the average number of clutches per pair, the average number of broods per clutch, and the average number of fledged young per brood. In a multiple regression analysis covering the whole breeding season, the number of pairs and the average number of clutches per pair explained 71% of the variation in the average number of fledglings per pair. During the brood season, the average number of fledglings per brood was an additionally important parameter in explaining fledgling production. Habitat quality seemed to affect breeding: in places occupied earlier more cygnets fledged from a clutch than in habitats inhabited later. The decreased production of young very likely reflects density-dependent effects on reproduction. This density dependence seems to operate on the breeding grounds, since winter harshness did not affect breeding success. Density-dependent processes started acting already when pairs were beginning to nest, and continued during the brood period. Density dependence has apparently not been detected at the pair stage in earlier studies of bird populations.     

Breeding success and the question of clutch size of Northwestern Crows Corvus caurinus

The breeding biology of two island populations of the Northwestern Crow was studied in British Columbia over a period of five years. Both populations laid an average of four eggs per clutch, of which approximately 75% hatched. More young survived to fledge on Mandate than on Mitlenatch Island. The young from nests close (< 100 m) to the beach on Mitlenatch had a higher survival rate than those from further inland. The number of eggs lost or failing to hatch was lowest in clutches of four eggs. There was a non-significant trend for chick survival to be inversely related to clutch size. The net result was that clutches of five eggs produced no more young than did clutches of four eggs. It is suggested that the major limiting factor on clutch size is food availability but the decreased hatching success of any remaining eggs once hatching has started is also a contributing factor.     

Rates and consequences of relaying in little auks Alle alle breeding in the High Arctic an experimental study with egg removal

Most seabirds have a small clutch size. Thus, replacement of a clutch after loss can make important contributions to an individual’s lifetime reproductive success. However, in the condition of short polar summer, relaying propensity may be time‐constrained. In this study, we investigated rates and consequences of relaying in a small High Arctic seabird, the little auk Alle alle. We performed an experiment in which we removed the single egg from 20 nests of early‐laying breeders. We measured relaying rates, and compared chick body mass and breeding success between the experimental and control nests. Despite the narrow window of the Arctic summer and the closely synchronized breeding, 75% of females produced a replacement egg just 2.7% smaller in volume than the first egg. This indicates that in little auks, the demographic effects of disruptions to breeding attempts (by predators, adverse weather or human activity) may be mitigated to some extent by replacement clutches. However, peak body mass and fledging body mass were lower in the experimental than the control chicks. This effect was rather a consequence of late hatching – chicks from replacement clutches followed seasonal decline in peak body mass and fledging mass. Finally, breeding success and chick survival up to 20 d in the experimental nests were respectively 34 and 37% lower than in the control nests. Thus, the quality and post‐fledging survival of chicks from the replacement clutches were probably lower compared to the chicks hatched from the first‐laid eggs.     

Natal philopatry and recruitment of willow ptarmigan in north central and northwestern Canada

Summary Natal philopatry and recruitment were measured in two populations of willow ptarmigan; one near Churchill, Manitoba and the other in northwestern British Columbia. We examined the return of tagged offspring in subsequent years with respect to geographical area, annual variation, their age when tagged, their sex, their body weight, age and number of their parents, and time of hatch (first nest or renest). Most chicks were tagged before they fledged, but chicks tagged after that had the highest rate of return. We also observed a strong positive relationship between fledging success of broods and offspring return in following years.Patterns of offspring return were similar in both populations except that male offspring in Manitoba settled closer to their natal sites than those in British Columbia and more yearling captured in Manitoba had been tagged as chicks. Return of offspring did not vary with year, their body weights shortly after hatch, or with the age or number of parents raising them. However, a significantly higher proportion of offspring hatched from first nests (first-initiated clutches) returned compared to those hatched from renests (replacement clutches). The low return of chicks hatched from renests may due to low survival, low philopatry, or both. We observed no differences in the mating status (recruitment) of returning offspring with respect to the time they hatched or the number of parents that raised them.