Legalization of consensual unions in Latin America

Abstract

In Latin America conjugal unions take two forms, legal marriages and consensual unions. The distinction between these two types of unions is complicated by the fact that cohabiting couples often legalize their relationship through civil or religious marriage. This analysis examines legalization in rural areas of Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Costa Rica based on data from the PECFAL rural survey (1969). The results indicate that legalization is frequent in rural Latin America, especially among women who enter consensual unions after age 17 and who have some education. Surprisingly, there is little increase in the frequency of legalization for church‐attending Catholics or for women who have a pregnancy or birth within a consensual union. Consensual unions appear to serve a useful function as trial marriages since legalized unions are less likely to end in separation than are legal marriages without premarital cohabitation.     

Marriage structure and contraception in Niger

Analysis of the 1992 Niger Demographic and Health Survey showed that although roughly two-thirds of both polygamous and monogamous women approve of birth control, polygamous wives are less likely than monogamous wives to discuss family size or birth control with their husband or to plan on using birth control. The study suggests that characteristics of polygamous couples have caused polygamous women to be more resistant to birth control use than monogamous women. The polygamous women tended to be married to older men who had not gone to primary school and who desired more children than monogamous husbands. The influence of marital structure is not significantly associated with intention to use birth control when the husband's age and the wife's ideal number of children were controlled for in the multivariate logistic regression model suggesting that background social factors may be more influential. In fact, educational level and age at first marriage were significantly associated with attitudes towards birth control and also with marital structure.     

A note on the determinants of breastfeeding durations in an African country

This paper utilizes data from the 1977-78 Kenya Fertility Survey, 1 component of the World Fertility Survey, to analyze the determinants of breastfeeding durations for women 15 to 50 years old who had their last-but-1 live birth between 3 and 15 years prior to the interview. Comparisons are made with the findings fro m the World Fertility Surveys in 8 other developing countries in Asia and Latin America. Findings indicate that literacy, urban residence, secondary school education, and modern employment reduce the duration of breastfeeding in Kenya. In addition, the subgroups of women who appear to be curtailing breastfeeding are growing in proportional size or are composed of women may be innovators or leaders. A continuation of this pattern into the future may increase levels of infant morbidity and mortality and, in the absence of increased modern contraceptive practice, may increase the societal level of fertility. The death of the infant curtails the period of breastfeeding. Although there is a pronounced preference for male children in Kenya, this preference does not lead to differential durations of breastfeeding by sex of child. About 10% of Kenyan women used contraception in the last closed interval. Parity and age explain less than 1% of the variation in duration of breastfeeding in Kenya. Kenyan women are among the least likely to have attended secondary school, to have worked since marriage, and to have used modern contraception. The most traditional groups of Kenyan women, those who are Muslim or who are in polygamous unions, breastfeed for the longest durations. The Kenya Fertility Survey suggests that the subgroup of women with some secondary school education is growing considerably. Kikuyu women may be regarded as innovators in many respects. In addition to having shorter breastfeeding durations, they are the least likely to be in polygamous unions or to want more children, and they are the most likely to be using contraception.     

Age-heterogamy and Canadian union

This study provides a much-needed exploration of the determinants of age-discrepant unions in Canada. What little research has been conducted in this area of sociology of the family is now outdated. Further, the growing number of Canadians living in nonmarital cohabitation warrants their inclusion in any consideration of contemporary, heterosexual unions, and we have done so here. Utilizing multinomial logit modeling techniques, we analyze data drawn from the 1995 Canadian General Social Survey. We find that cohabitations and remarriages are more likely to be age-discrepant than marriages, and that as age at union formation increases, so does the likelihood that the union will be age-heterogamous. Although we hypothesized a positive relationship between education and the chances of age-heterogamous unions because the availability of eligible mates may decrease with education, we actually find an inverse association for women: a one-level increase in education decreases a woman's odds of entering an age-discrepant union by about 4 percent. We speculate that for women, greater education (economic position) may increase age-homogamy because they may be more economically attractive and thus more able to select a partner of their own age.     

The one‐person household in Latin America: A brief note

Abstract

This study provides a much‐needed exploration of the determinants of age‐discrepant unions in Canada. What little research has been conducted in this area of sociology of the family is now outdated. Further, the growing number of Canadians living in nonmarital cohabitation warrants their inclusion in any consideration of contemporary, heterosexual unions, and we have done so here. Utilizing multinomial Iogit modeling techniques, we analyze data drawn from the 1995 Canadian General Social Survey. We find that cohabitations and remarriages are more likely to be age‐discrepant than marriages, and that as age at union formation increases, so does the likelihood that the union will be age‐heterogamous. Although we hypothesized a positive relationship between education and the chances of age‐heterogamous unions because the availability of eligible mates may decrease with education, we actually find an inverse association for women: a one‐level increase in education decreases a woman's odds of entering an age‐discrepant union by about 4 percent. We speculate that for women, greater education (economic position) may increase age‐homogamy because they may be more economically attractive and thus more able to select a partner of their own age.     

Consanguineous marriage and differentials in age at marriage, contraceptive use and fertility in Pakistan

Fertility rates in Pakistan have remained consistently high over the past three decades. While numerous studies have examined sociodemographic determinants, the role of biological factors, and particularly consanguinity, has received little attention, even though marriage between close biological relatives continues to be the norm in Pakistan. Reproductive behaviour among women in consanguineous (first cousin) and non-consanguineous unions was compared, using data from a 1995 study of multi-ethnic communities in Karachi and the 1990-91 Pakistan Demographic & Health Survey (PDHS). The results show that, although female age at first marriage has been gradually rising in both study samples, women in consanguineous unions married at younger ages and were less likely to use modern contraceptive methods. In the Karachi sample, women in first cousin unions experienced a higher mean number of pregnancies and also reported a higher mean number of children ever born (CEB). However, their mean number of surviving children did not differ from those born to women in non-consanguineous unions, implying higher prenatal and/or postnatal losses in couples related as first cousins. On the other hand, the PDHS showed both lower CEB values for women in consanguineous marriages and a lower number of surviving children. Given the continuing popularity of consanguineous marriage, these findings have important implications for future fertility reduction in Pakistan.     

Sociodemographic correlates of consanguineous marriage in the Muslim population of India

Using data derived from the 1992-1993 National Family Health Survey, the sociodemographic characteristics of consanguineous marriage were determined in the Muslim population of India. In this nationally representative sample of 8436 women, consanguineous marriages accounted for 22.0% of the total. No differences between the consanguineous and non-consanguineous groups were observed in terms of mean age at marriage or mean age at cohabitation. The study confirmed the negative association between consanguineous marriage and maternal education but also indicated that women in consanguineous unions were more likely to be employed, albeit mainly in agricultural work on behalf of the family. Consanguineous couples more frequently lived in smaller towns and in an extended family environment. Somewhat conflicting results were obtained with indicators of socioeconomic status, but the overall picture suggested that consanguineous households had greater access to consumer goods because of their larger number of co-resident persons.     

Sexual Desire,Piety, and Law in a Javanese Pesantren: Interpreting Varieties of Secret Divorce and Polygamy

Very little anthropological research has explored the polygamous worlds of women in Indonesia's traditional Islamic boarding schools known as pesantren. These traditional schools are patriarchal institutions that teach women to be ideal Muslims according to male-defined notions of shari'ah-based piety that construct polygamy as normative. This article challenges dominant discourses on polygamy, which are mostly concerned with public protest and feminist agendas that seek to have the practice banned, and instead reveals an agentive side of women in polygamous marriages. It examines the experiences of a group of pesantren women whose actions transgress state and Islamic laws on marriage and divorce in their endorsement of polygamous union and nikah batin (Sufi spiritual marriage). It builds on feminist arguments that recognise female agency in polygamy by considering the legal ambiguity surrounding secret and informal divorce and polygamous practices initiated by women restricted from obtaining legal divorces for socio-cultural reasons. In doing so, it further considers some aspects of a notion of a woman-centric polygamy that includes polyandry, which women create based on their understanding that Islam acknowledges women's sexual rights in marriage.     

Are wives and daughters disadvantaged in polygynous households? A case study of the Arsi Oromo of Ethiopia

Whether polygyny is harmful for women and their children is a long-standing question in anthropology. Few studies, however, have explored whether the effect of polygyny varies for women of different wife order, and whether there are different outcomes for their sons and daughters. Because males have higher reproductive variance, especially when they are allowed to take multiple wives, parents may have higher fitness returns from investing in sons over daughters in polygynous households. Moreover, previous studies have found that first wives and their children are advantaged over monogamous and second order wives (who marry into unions later). Here we test the predictions that children of first wives will have an advantage over children to monogamous or second wives, and that sex-biased investment will be strongest among first wives. Using data from the Arsi Oromo of Ethiopia (n ~ 6200 children) we test whether associations with mother's wife order extend beyond childhood into adulthood by examining simultaneously child survival, education and age at marriage. We find that polygynous first wives have no child survival disadvantage, first wives' sons benefit in terms of longer education and daughters have an earlier age at marriage than daughters of monogamous women. Second wives have lower child survival than monogamous women, but surviving children experience advantages in later life outcomes, particularly marriage. These findings challenge the view that polygynous women are always doing the ‘best of a bad job’. Rather, our results suggest that via their surviving sons and daughters there may be long-term benefits for some polygynous women.     

Sterilization and union instability in Brazil

Brazilian women rely on sterilization as the main source of birth control. Sterilization has been one of the causes of the steep decline in fertility in Brazil, at least since the second half of 1970. It is hypothesized that understanding couples' relationships might be key to explaining this high rate of female sterilizations. Possible reasons for the higher level of fertility among women in unstable unions than among women in stable ones could be the less effective use of contraceptive methods, or that women in unstable unions tend to use less effective or reversible contraceptive methods. In this paper discrete time modelling of the timing of sterilization according to union histories is presented. The analysis uses the calendar data of the 1996 Brazilian DHS. It is shown that women in second or higher order unions have a lower risk of sterilization. This result should be taken into account in the analysis of the determinants of female sterilization in Brazil.     

Brood desertion and polygamous breeding in the Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

In the Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus one of the adults, typically the female, deserts the brood when the chicks are a few days old. Once parental care is terminated, adults may initiate a second nesting attempt if sufficient time remains within the season. For these nests, individuals pair with different mates from those of the first nesting attempt, thus becoming sequentially polygamous. In a small population of Kentish Plovers in Fuente de Piedra lake (southern Spain), the duration of biparental care of broods was longer than in other localities. It also showed considerable variation between years that was evidently related to Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica predation pressure on the chicks. There was year-to-year variation in the number of polygamous matings. Both the duration of the breeding season and nesting success in the first half of the season limited the occurrence of polygamy. Despite females deserting broods earlier than males, the interval between the first and second nesting of polyandrous females and polygynous males was similar. The interval was not affected by the body condition of females after the first nesting attempt, nor by problems related to egg formation ability, but was probably due to the availability of potential mates. More females than males initiated second nests, suggesting that polygamous opportunities were more limited for males than for females. In terms of delayed breeding, reduced survivorship or reduced breeding opportunities in years following polygamous breeding, polygamous individuals did not have greater costs than non-polygamous ones. Females with second nests did not seem to be selective in mate choice, mating with any available male. Mates for second nests may therefore be of lower quality than those for first nests, as judged by male plumage characteristics. Clutch sizes and egg characteristics of polyandrous females were similar in first and second nests. Nest success of second nests was only 40% of that of first ones, with nest desertion accounting for 60% of the losses. As the costs of polygamy are apparently low and as breeding success is very variable among years, polygamous breeding of the long-lived Kentish Plover may be an important breeding strategy with which to increase individual lifetime reproductive success.     

Normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate in the elderly.

Two hundred subjects aged 60-89 were selected for a study aimed at defining a reference range for the erythrocyte sedimentation rate in the elderly. The study extended a previous survey in subjects aged 20-65. The results confirmed that the sedimentation rate increases with age and that women have higher values than men but suggested that over half of elderly patients with disease would have rates within the previously defined "normal" range. It is therefore suggested that an erythrocyte sedimentation rate exceeding 19 mm in the first hour in elderly men and 22 mm in the first hour in elderly women warrants investigation.     

The ovarian structure and mode of egg production in two polygamous pipefishes: a link to mating pattern

In this study, the ovarian structure and mode of egg production were examined in two pipefishes, the broad-nosed pipefish Syngnathus typhle and the straight-nosed pipefish Nerophis ophidion, which show different types of polygamous mating patterns. Syngnathus typhle showed an ovary with one germinal ridge and asynchronous egg production, corresponding to previous findings in other polygamous Syngnathus pipefishes. In contrast, the ovary of N. ophidion had two germinal ridges and eggs were produced synchronously in groups, similar to what has been observed in monogamous syngnathids. The egg production of N. ophidion, however, is clearly distinguished from that of monogamous syngnathids by the additional egg production after an ovulation. It is suggested that the differences in female mating strategies result from the difference in egg production process and that this is related to the difference in mating pattern between these two polygamous species.     

Polygyny and fertility differentials among the Yoruba of western Nigeria

Data are analysed from the 1973 surveys of the Nigerian segment of the Changing African Family (CAFN) Project, which covered Yoruba women and men in Ibadan and the Western State of Nigeria. Of the 5874 women who were in union during the CAFN 1 survey, 54% reported that their husband had only 1 wife and 46% that their husband had more than 1 wife. Of the 1234 women in unions in the CAFN 2 survey, 49% reported monogamous husbands and 51% polygynous husbands. Differentials in fertility levels between women in monogamous unions and those in polygynous ones are investigated using mean number of children ever born as the measure of fertility. Factors examined include proportion of childless and infertile women, frequency of intercourse, age, educational level, religion, marital mobility (divorce) rank of wife and sexual abstinence. The CAFN 1 survey shows that wives of polygynists tend to be older than those of monogamists. Because of this the reported mean number of children ever born was higher for the wives of polygynists than for the wives of monogamists. When the data are standardized for the difference in age, the fertility levels of the women in the 2 types of unions were much closer to each other. When religion, education, abstinence, and occupation are also taken into account, it is observed that the 2 groups of women have similar levels of fertility. A multiple classification analysis was performed using number of wives of husband, educational level, religion and father's occupation as variables and occupation of spouse, place of birth, length of abstinence, contraceptive practice and age as covariates. The result also shows that the number of wives of the husband does not significantly affect the fertility level of women when other factors are taken into account. A high proportion of the Yoruba women are in polygynous unions and most of those in monogamous unions are potential wives of polygynists. Because of this, and particularly because most women try to have as many children as they can, the women in the 2 types of unions experience similar levels of fertility.     

Differential indicators of loneliness among elderly. The importance of type of partner relationship, partner history, health, socioeconomic status and social relations

Using data from the 1992 NESTOR-survey 'Living arrangements and social networks of older adults' (N = 4494), the aim of the present study is to identify specific categories of older adults who are most vulnerable to loneliness. By looking at different types of partner relationships (first, second, and third marriages; consensual unions; partners who are not household members) and at partner histories (never married, ever divorced, ever widowed, remarried), this study elaborates on previous research which has tended to look only at the presence versus the absence of partner relationships. Findings indicate that different types of partner relationships provide differential protection against loneliness. There appears to be a 'shadow of the past' of a previous divorce or widowhood in second and third partnerships, which accounts for generally higher levels of loneliness. Single men tend to be more lonely than single women. Moreover, there are no differences in loneliness between men who have always been single and those previously married. Among single women, differences in partner history are relevant: never married single women tend to be least vulnerable to loneliness. The differences in loneliness between older adults with different types of partner relationships and partner histories are only partially attributable to network and social participation differences. The latter independently contribute to the explanation of loneliness. The role of non-social determinants (health and socioeconomic position) is also examined. The results underscore the socially isolating effects of sensory impairments. Older adults with functional limitations, and those with visual or auditory problems tend to be more lonely, findings which are only partially attributable to differences in the number and quality of social relationships. Socioeconomic circumstances primarily have an indirect influence on loneliness. Those with higher levels of educational attainment and higher incomes tend to have more extensive social networks and are therefore less prone to loneliness.     

Epidemiological features of HIV infection among pregnant women in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

Women in Benue State have for years had the highest HIV rate in the country, but because the sentinel surveys are anonymized and unlinked, not much is known about the socio-demographic, behavioural and other risk factors that predispose these women to the disease. The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria does not appear to be a single epidemic but rather multiple epidemics of varying magnitude and trends. This cross-sectional study was therefore carried out to identify the risk factors for HIV/AIDS among these women. A total of 404 consecutive consenting mothers enrolled at the booking clinic were followed up until delivery of their babies. They were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire and tested for HIV infection using an ELISA-based kit after obtaining informed consent. Mean age of the mothers was 26+/-6.1 years, 94.8% were married while 50.5% had at least secondary level education. Sixty-one (15.1%) mothers were HIV positive with mothers aged 15-24 years being responsible for 50.8% of all infection. Following bivariate analysis, being single, having a partner with low level of formal education, living in a rural location, being in a polygamous/multiple partner union, being a higher order polygamous wife, being married more than once and reporting a history of a sexually transmitted infection were significantly associated with HIV infection. Monogamous women who lived apart from their partners and women who had ever had blood transfusion were also more likely to be HIV positive. Following multivariate logistic regression, a young age of 15-24 years (multivariate OR=3.3, 95 % CI=1.2-8.4, p=0.02); ever had other STIs (OR=1.6, 95% CI 1.1-2.3, p=0.009); no formal maternal education (OR=0.6, 95% CI 0.4-0.9, p=0.021) and having one lifetime sexual partner (OR=0.4, 95% CI 0.3-0.5, p<0.00001) were significantly associated with HIV infection in the study population. Appropriate interventions must be directed at young people and should include STI control and abstinence education. Blood safety must be ensured as well as a general improvement in the level of formal and health education in this community.     

Marital fertility in polygynous unions in Nigeria

The effect of polygyny on fertility, by age cohort, was examined in 4 regions of Nigeria through use of data from the 1981-82 Nigerian Fertility Survey. Simple tabulation of numbers of live births by maternal age and type of marriage union indicated that, with the exception of the 30-39-year age group, fertility in polygynous unions tends to be higher than that in monogamous marriages. Overall, such tabulations reveal an average of 3.90 births among polygynous women and 3.47 births among monogamous women. However, when age-specific fertility rates were compared, except for women under 20 and over 40 years of age, rates were higher in monogamous unions (7.286 overall) than for women in polygynous households (7.200 overall). Mean completed fertility, taking into account marriage duration as well, shows a tendency for women in polygynous unions to be more fertile (with the exception of women aged 25-44 years who had been married 10-19 years). The absolute difference in fertility between the 2 types of marital unions ranged from 0.32 children in the northwest to 0.64 in the southeast. With adjustment for independent variables such as education, the absolute mean differences were reduced, from between 0.28 children in the southeast to 0.42 in the northeast, but the direction of high fertility was still in favor of women in polygynous unions. But when the covariates (e.g., age at marriage) were taken into account as well as the independent variables, there was a dramatic reduction in the mean difference between the fertility of these 2 groups of women. These findings suggest that some changes in reproductive behavior are taking place in Nigeria that are restricting the fertility of women in polygynous unions. These changes are hypothesized to reflect the spread of formal education in Nigeria, with the expectation that women will contribute to the costs involved in educating their children.     

EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION OF SPERM QUALITY VIA POSTCOPULATORY SEXUAL SELECTION IN HOUSE MICE

Individuals of many species copulate with multiple mates (polygamy). Multiple mating by females (polyandry) promotes sperm competition, which has broad implications for the evolution of the ejaculate. Multigenerational studies of polygamous insects have shown that the removal of sexual selection has profound fitness consequences for females, and can lead to an evolutionary divergence in ejaculate traits. However, the evolutionary implications of polygamous mating across successive generations have not before been demonstrated in a vertebrate. By manipulating the mating system we were able to reinstate postcopulatory sexual selection in a house mouse population that had a long history of enforced monogamy. Following eight generations of selection, we performed sperm quality assays on males from both the polygamous and monogamous selection lines. We applied a principal component analysis to summarize the variation among 12 correlated sperm traits, and found that males evolving under sperm competition had significantly larger scores on the first axis of variation, reflecting greater numbers of epididymal sperm and increased sperm motility, compared to males from lines under relaxed selection. Moreover, we found a correlated response in the size of litters born to females in lines subject to sperm competition. Thus, we present significant evidence that sperm competition has profound fitness consequences for both male and female house mice.     

Mechanisms of social synchrony between circadian activity rhythms in cohabiting marmosets

In marmosets, social synchrony between circadian profiles of activity is stronger in animals that cohabit in a family. The activity of three breeding pairs was recorded by actiwatches to investigate the mechanisms involved in the synchrony between the circadian activity profiles during cohabitation in marmoset reproductive pairs. The dyads were submitted to LD 12:12 (21 days) and LL: 1) cohabitation (24 days), 2) removal of the cage mate (20 days), 3) reintroduction of the mate into the cage of the 1^st situation (30 days) and 4) removal of the cage mate (7 days). Next, they were rejoined and maintained in LD 12:12 (11 days). In conditions involving cohabitation of pair, the general and maximum correlation indexes between circadian profiles were higher in cage mates compared to animals of the same or different sex with which they maintain only acoustic and olfactive contact. This strong synchrony between rhythms was accompanied by a stable phase relationship at the activity onset and offset, with identical circadian periods between mates. When the pairs were separated, there was a break in stability in the phase relationships between activity profiles with different circadian periods and a greater phase angle difference between rhythms of cage mates. During separation, two females and one male progressively anticipated the activity onset and offset in a phase similar to that in previous conditions, expressing entrainment to the mate. During the first reintroduction, two pairs exhibited signs of masking in rhythm. Although modulation in the rhythm of some animals has been observed through acoustic cues from animals outside the colony, we suggest that cohabitation favors strong synchrony between the circadian activity profiles of marmoset reproductive pairs involving synchronization by entrainment and masking. Further studies in the absence of external social cues are necessary to clarify the role of these mechanisms on social synchronization in marmosets.     

Epidemiological parameters of White Spot Syndrome Virus infections in Litopenaeus vannamei and L. setiferus

An experimental protocol based on a mathematical epidemiology model was developed to study the transmission, virulence, and recovery rates of White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV). Two modes of transmission were compared for WSSV in Litopenaeus vannamei. We compared transmission by ingestion of infected cadavers to transmission by cohabitation with infected animals. In addition, we compared the ingestion transmission of WSSV in L. vannamei and in L. setiferus. Finally, we compared the virulence and recovery rates of WSSV in L. vannamei and L. setiferus. The transmission rate of WSSV to L. vannamei by cohabitation was 0.01. The transmission rate by ingestion of infected cadavers was over an order of magnitude larger at 0.46, suggesting that cohabitation is a much less important mode of transmission for WSSV. A statistically significant difference was detected between the estimates of ingestion transmission of L. vannamei (0.46) and those of L. setiferus (0.84), yet no differences in the virulence or recovery rates were detected between hosts. The overall estimated virulence rate was 0.34, and the overall estimated recovery rate from a WSSV infection was 0.007 for both species. According to epidemiological theory the threshold density of hosts necessary for an epidemic to occur is directly related to the virulence and recovery rates and inversely related to the transmission rate. Therefore, the epidemic threshold density may be lower for ingestion transmission than cohabitation transmission and lower for L. setiferus than for L. vannamei.