Aflatoxins in peanut butter in Khartoum State,Sudan

Forty-three peanut butter samples from Khartoum State, Sudan, were analyzed for aflatoxins (AFs, AFB₁ + AFB₂ + AFG₁ + AFG₂) using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection after extraction with methanol:water (8:1, v/v) and clean-up using chloroform. All samples were contaminated with AFs, with total AF levels ranging between 26.7 and 853 μg/kg, and a mean total AF level of 287 ± 200.5 μg/kg. The highest concentrations were found for AFB₁, (28 positive samples, maximum 534 μg/kg), while AFG₁ was most frequently detected (43 positive samples, maximum 401 μg/kg). AFB₂ (42 positive samples, maximum 3.2 μg/kg) and AFG₂ (4 positive samples, maximum 30 μg/kg) were also present in these samples. The mean AF contamination levels found in this study exceeded by far all international regulations concerning maximum levels for this group of toxins. From the data, it is concluded that the levels of AF contamination in peanut butter from the Kartoum area are quite alarming, and may pose serious health hazards to consumers. Therefore, an intervention strategy to manage AF in peanut butter is urgently needed.     

Aflatoxins levels in vegetable oils in Khartoum State,Sudan

Vegetable oil (n = 81) for human consumption from Khartoum State in Sudan were analyzed for aflatoxins (AFs), using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection following extraction with methanol:water (80:20) and clean-up using petroleum ether. Sampling included sesame oil (n = 14), peanut oil (n = 21), and sunflower oil (n = 19) purchased from retail shops, and mixed oil produced by two local manufacturers (factory A, n = 15; factory B, n = 12). AF contamination was found in 80/81 (98.8%) samples, with total AF levels ( AFB₁ + AFB₂ + AFG₁ + AFG₂ ) \left( {{\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{B}}_{\rm{1}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{B}}_{\rm{2}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{G}}_{\rm{1}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{G}}_{\rm{2}}}} \right) of 0.43–339.9 μg/kg and mean level of 57.5 μg/kg. All sesame oils had total AF levels that were much higher than the United States Food and Drug Administration acceptable limit of 20 μg/kg. The percentage of samples with total AF values <20 μg/kg in other oils varied and was 57.14% in peanut oil, 36.8% in sunflower oil, 66.7% (mixed oil from factory A), and 91.7% (mixed oil from factory B). In conclusion, the levels of total AFs in edible oil as available in Khartoum State are quite alarming. To reduce the health hazards for the consumers, an intervention strategy to manage AFs in food commodities from Sudan is urgently required.     

An evaluation of kapok and Spanish moss bedding materials for mycotoxigenic potential using aspergillus flavus,A. parasiticus,and fusarium tricinctum

The potential of kapok and Spanish moss (used as fill materials in bedding manufacture) to support the production of aflatoxins (AFTs) and/or trichothecenes when inoculated with Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, and Fusarium tricinctum isolates was evaluated. During incubation for 51 days at 23°C, all Spanish moss replicates supported the production of aflatoxins AFB₁ and AFG₁ and 90% supported trichothecene production (T-2 and HT-2 toxins). In 60% of the kapok replicates, production of AFB₁ and AFG₁ was supported, but none supported trichothecene production. In both materials, significantly more AFG₁ was produced than AFB₁ (P < 0·01). AFT production levels were significantly greater (P < 0·01) in Spanish moss in kapok, and ranged from 90 ng AFB₁g⁻¹ kapok to 839 ng AFB₁g⁻¹ Spanish moss and 221 ng AFG₁g⁻¹ kapok to 1376 ng AFG₁g⁻¹ Spanish moss. Spanish moss supported production of 15 271 ngT-2 toxin and 13 034 ng HT-2 toxin g⁻¹ Spanish moss.     

A survey of aflatoxins in sesame seeds imported into Khorasan Province, Iran

Sesame seed is one of the main nutrient substances which is used in the food industries of Khorasan Razavi, Iran. Because it is likely that stored sesame seeds are contaminated with mycotoxins, the levels of aflatoxins (AF) in five lots of imported sesame seeds before their distribution to the market were studied during one year. A total of 269 sub-samples were obtained from a total of 9,321 tons of sesame seeds from five importing companies. Aflatoxins at >1 μg/kg were found in 50 % of all samples, but at low levels in most cases, which is illustrated by mean AFB₁ and total AF levels of 1.25?±?3.70 and 1.43?±?4.38 μg/kg, respectively. A few (1.9 %) samples exceeded the National Iranian Standard maximum accepted level for AFB₁ (5 μg/kg) or total AF (15 μg/kg); the maximum total AF level found in one sample was 48 μg/kg. The results indicate that the risk of a violative AF contamination in imported sesame seeds is not negligible but is currently relatively low.     

Comparing aflatoxin contamination in chilies from Punjab,Pakistan produced in summer and winter

A comparison was made of total aflatoxins (AFs) in 43 samples of chilies collected during winter and 42 in summer to determine the effect of season on contamination. The samples were analyzed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The limits of detection and quantification for AFB₁ and AFG₁ were 0.05 μg/kg and 0.50 μg/kg, whilst for AFG₂ and AFB₂ they were 0.10 μg/kg and 0.60 μg/kg. In the winter samples, AFs were detected in 18 (72%) whole and 14 (60%) ground chilies, with concentration ranges 0.00-52.30 μg/kg and 0.00-74.60 μg/kg respectively. In the summer samples, 17 (64%) whole and 12 (76%) ground chilies were contaminated with AFs at concentrations 0.00-61.50 μg/kg and 0.00-95.90 μg/kg respectively. The percentage of samples greater than the European Union statutory limit for AFB₁ and total AF for whole chilies were 48 and 36%, compared with ground chili values of 50 and 45%, respectively, in the winter season. In the summer season, the samples greater than the European Union limit for AFB₁ and total AF in whole chilies were 52 and 38%, compared with values of 54 and 49% in ground chilies respectively. AF contamination was found to be higher in summer chili samples and hence winter chilies may provide a better quality product with respect to AF contamination. The ability to undertake this analysis in Pakistan will enhance greatly the ability to improve chili production in that country, as described herein.     

Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins from Maize in Iran

Fifty-one maize samples, intended for animal feed and human consumption, were collected from the four main maize production provinces in Iran and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for contamination by four naturally occurring aflatoxin analogues (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2). AFB1 was detected in 58.3, and 80% of the maize samples obtained from Kermanshah and Mazandaran provinces, respectively. The maximum AFB1 (276.3 μg/kg) and highest level of total aflatoxins (AFT) (316.9 μg/kg) were detected in a maize sample collected from Kermanshah province. The mean aflatoxin level from contaminated samples (52.60 μg/kg) from Kermanshah was significantly higher (P < 0.0001) than those in maize from the other three provinces and exceeded all the maximum tolerated levels (MTLs) set for AFT in maize. The level of AFB1 in 15.68% of the total samples was above the MTL (5 μg/kg) for AFB1 in maize in Iran. The mean contamination level of AFT (23.86 μg/kg) in the positive samples was higher than MTL for maize in Iran (20 μg/kg) intended for animal feed. The levels of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 ranged between not detected (<0.1 μg/kg) and 276.3, 30.4, 9.1, and 1.1 μg/kg in maize grain, respectively.     

Natural occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin a in corn and barley from mazandaran and golestan in north provinces of I. R. Iran

Fourteen barley and nine corn samples, destined for animal feed, collected from Golestan and Mazandaran provinces in the north of Islamic Republic of Iran (I. R. Iran) were analysed for aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A (OA) by high performance liquid chromatography. In corn samples, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and aflatoxin B₂ (AFB₂) were detected in 8 (88.8%) and 6 (66.6%) samples at a mean level of 15.83 and 2.99 ppb (median 1.72 and 1 ppb), respectively. None of the corn samples contained detectable amounts of aflatoxin G₁ (AFG₁) and aflatoxin G₂ (AFG₂). Only one of the AF-contaminated samples was co-contaminated with OA at a concentration of 0.35 ppb. This is the first report concerning natural occurrence of OA and co-occurrence with AF in corn samples of north of I. R. Iran.     

Zearalenone,deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> and their metabolites in pig urine as biomarkers for mycotoxin exposure

Methods to determine zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxins (AF) and their metabolites in pig urine were developed as biomarkers for pig exposure to the mycotoxins in feed. Urine samples were incubated with β-glucuronidase to cleave conjugates, extracted and cleaned-up with solid phase and immunoaffinity columns, followed by HPLC with UV and fluorescence detection. Good recoveries (83–130%), low variation (2–10%), and low detection limits (0.3–9.9 ng/ml) were obtained. The results of controlled AFB₁ feeding trials found no difference in urine concentrations of AFB₁ or AFM₁ from pigs fed three different levels (127, 227, 327 μg/kg) of AFB₁ in diets. The excretion of AFB₁ and AFM₁ in urine was on average 30% of the oral dose and the ratio AFB₁ to AFM₁ was around 23%. The analysis of 15 Vietnamese pig urine samples indicate a relatively high exposure of ZEA, DON and AF, which were found as toxin or metabolites in 47, 73, and 80% of the urine samples, respectively.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M<Subscript>1</Subscript> in commercial pasteurized milk samples in Sari,Mazandaran province,Iran

The frequency and levels of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in pasteurized milk samples in Sari, located in Mazandaran province, Iran, were determined by enzyme immunoassay. Seventy-six samples of pasteurized milk from different retail stores were randomly collected over four seasons during the year 2015. AFM₁ contamination was detected in all milk samples. The mean concentration of aflatoxin M₁ was 65.8 ng/l, with a range of 11.7–106.6 ng/l. The highest AFM₁ level was detected in milk samples collected during spring. Forty-six (60.53 %) samples had AFM₁ levels that exceeded the maximum acceptable levels (50 ng/l) recommended by the European Union (EU). Comparison of these results with previously published data for AFM₁ in milk in Iran shows that the percentage of samples exceeding the EU maximum level is consistently high over the years, indicating a general problem related to AFB₁ contamination in dairy feedingstuff.     

Potential pathogenicity of Cladosporium tennuisimum,Phaeoisaria clematidis and Ramichloridium subulatum in a mouse model

In Sri Lanka, rice is the main staple which is mostly processed into parboiled rice. The levels of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and aflatoxin G₁ (AFG₁) in parboiled and raw milled rice collected from major rice producing areas and rice consuming townships were estimated. In almost all the samples of parboiled rice examined, the AFB₁ and AFG₁ contents were significantly higher than in raw milled rice. The highest AFB₁ content was 185 µg/kg and AFG₁ content 963 g/kg. These samples were collected from a major rice producing/milling district where the mean relative humidity is 78% and mean annual temperature 27 °C which is the highest amongst the rice growing areas in Sri Lanka. Raw rice was either free of aflatoxins or when toxins were detected, they occurred in less than 10% of the samples. The frequency of occurrence of surface fungal flora (Aspergillus/Penicillium) and aflatoxin content in market samples was closely related. Brownish or greenish moldy rice samples with fermented odour contained over 1000 g/kg of AFB₁.     

Examination of fungal growth and aflatoxin production on marihuana

Under favorable growth conditions,Aspergillus flavus andA. parasiticus produced aflatoxins on marihuana. Cultures ofA. flavus ATCC 15548 produced both aflat oxin B₁(AFB₁) and G₁(AFG₁). The production of AFG₁ was substantially greater than that of AFB₁. Cultures ofA. flavus NRRL 3251 andA. parasiticus NRRL 2999 produced only AFB₁. All natural flora cultures tested negative for aflatoxins. NoAspergilli sporulations were observed in these cultures. In the cultures inoculated with known toxigenic fungi, the highest mean level for total aflatoxins was 8.7 g/g of medium. Marihuana appears not to yield large quantities of these mycotoxins but sufficient levels are present to be a potential health hazard for both the user and the forensic analyst who is in daily contact with such plant material. Careful processing, storage, and sanitation procedures should be maintained with marihuana. If these conditions are disregarded due to the illicit status of marihuana, the potential for mycotoxin contamination must be considered.     

Effect of UV irradiation on aflatoxin reduction: a cytotoxicity evaluation study using human hepatoma cell line

In this proof-of-concept study, the efficacy of a medium-pressure UV (MPUV) lamp source to reduce the concentrations of aflatoxin B₁, aflatoxin B₂, and aflatoxin G₁ (AFB_1, AFB₂, and AFG₁) in pure water is investigated. Irradiation experiments were conducted using a collimated beam system operating between 200 to 360 nm. The optical absorbance of the solution and the irradiance of the lamp are considered in calculating the average fluence rate. Based on these factors, the UV dose was quantified as a product of average fluence rate and treatment time. Known concentrations of aflatoxins were spiked in water and irradiated at UV doses ranging from 0, 1.22, 2.44, 3.66, and 4.88 J cm^?2. The concentration of aflatoxins was determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. LC-MS/MS product ion scans were used to identify and semi-quantify degraded products of AFB₁, AFB₂, and AFG₁. It was observed that UV irradiation significantly reduced aflatoxins in pure water (p < 0.05). Irradiation doses of 4.88 J cm^?2 reduced concentrations 67.22% for AFG₁, 29.77% for AFB₂, and 98.25% for AFB₁ (p < 0.05). Using this technique, an overall reduction of total aflatoxin content of ≈95% (p < 0.05) was achieved. We hypothesize that the formation of ˙OH radicals initiated by UV light may have caused photolysis of AFB₁, AFB₂, and AFG₁ molecules. In cell culture studies, our results demonstrated that the increase of UV dosage decreased the aflatoxin-induced cytotoxicity in HepG₂ cells. Therefore, our research finding suggests that UV irradiation can be used as an effective technique for the reduction of aflatoxins.     

Exposure assessment and risk characterization of aflatoxin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in Malaysia

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) was detected in 57% of the nuts and nut products marketed in Penang, Malaysia using the liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The contamination levels ranged from 0.40 to 222 μg/kg and 17 out of 128 samples (13.3%) contained AFB₁ above the European Commission permitted level (2 μg/kg). Estimated dietary exposure of AFB₁ in nuts and nut products were 0.36 ng per kg body weight and day and 8.89 ng per kg body weight and day, representing the low and high-level of exposure, respectively. Dose-response modelling resulted in benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL₁₀) values of 0.305 ng per kg body weight and day, with the best fitted from the log-logistic model. The derived margin of exposure (MoE) values ranged from 34 to 847 suggested that AFB₁ would be of public health concern and might reasonably be considered as a high priority for risk management actions.     

Ochratoxin A and aflatoxins in dried vine fruits from the Iranian market

Forty samples of dried vine fruit (raisin, n?=?22; currant, n?=?18) were collected in 2009?C2011 from the Iranian market. Aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were determined in these samples after immunoaffinity column clean-up by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. The limit of quantification (LOQ) for AFs B₁. B₂, G₁, G₂, and OTA were 0.62, 0.50, 0.70, 0.40, and 0.42?ng/g, respectively. AFB₁ was found in one sample of raisin (0.64?ng/g) and in two samples of currant (0.20 and 0.63?ng/g). AFB₂ (0.33?ng/g) and AFG₂ (0.49?ng/g) were found in 2 samples of currant. OTA was detected in 3 of the 22 samples of raisin (mean 2.21?ng/g) and in one sample of currant (2.99?ng/g). The results show that in AFs and OTA levels are well below the regulatory limits both of the European Union and of Iran.     

Influence of Selenium on Body Weights and Immune Organ Indexes in Ducklings Intoxicated with Aflatoxin B<Subscript>1</Subscript>

To investigate the influence of selenium on body weights and the immune organ indexes in ducklings administrated with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), 90 7-day-old ducklings were randomly divided into three groups (groups I–III). Group I was used as a blank control. Group II was administered with AFB₁ (0.1 mg/kg body weight). Group III was administered with AFB₁ (0.1 mg/kg body weight) plus sodium selenite (1 mg/kg body weight). All treatments were given once daily for 21 days. It showed that the ducklings’ bursa of fabricius, thymus indexes, and body weights in group II significantly decreased when compared with group I (P < 0.01). Furthermore, the spleen indexes significantly decreased (P < 0.01). However, the ducklings’ bursa of fabricius and thymus indexes, body weights in group III ducklings significantly increased when compared with group II (P < 0.01). In addition, the spleen indexes significantly decreased (P < 0.01). These results revealed that AFB₁ significantly affect ducklings’ growth and immune organs development. However, selenium significantly ameliorated the negative effects induced by AFB₁.     

Influence of Selenium on Hepatic Mitochondrial Antioxidant Capacity in Ducklings Intoxicated with Aflatoxin B<Subscript>1</Subscript>

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of selenium on hepatic mitochondrial antioxidant capacity in ducklings administrated with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). Ninety 7-day-old ducklings were randomly divided into three groups (groups I–III). Group I was used as a blank control. Group II was administered with AFB₁ (0.1 mg/kg body weight). Group III was administered with AFB₁ (0.1 mg/kg body weight) plus selenium (sodium selenite, 1 mg/kg body weight). All treatments were given once daily for 21 days. The results showed that the activities of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and glutathione reductase (GR) in group II ducklings significantly decreased when compared with group I (P < 0.01). Furthermore, the content of hepatic mitochondrial malondialdehyde (MDA) significantly increased (P < 0.01). However, the activities of hepatic mitochondrial SOD, CAT, GSH-Px, and GR in group III ducklings significantly increased when compared with group II (P < 0.05). In addition, the content of hepatic mitochondrial MDA significantly decreased (P < 0.01). These results revealed that AFB₁ significantly induced hepatic mitochondrial antioxidant dysfunction. However, sodium selenite could significantly ameliorate the negative effect induced by AFB₁.     

Altered bacterial culture density following exposure to aflatoxins

Summary Eight species of bacteria were incubated in culture media containing 10 g/ml aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), aflatoxin B₂ (AFB₂), or aflatoxin G₂ (AFG₂). Their culture density at 20°C was determined at four and eight days (d) after inoculation. In all species of bacteria studied (Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis, Erysipylothrix rusiopathie (insidiosa), Streptococcus fecalis, Staphylococcus epidermis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Micrococcus spp., andEscherichia coli), AFB₁, AFB₂ and AFG₂ substantially decreased culture sizes at 4 d, but not at 8 d. InB. cereus andP. mirabilis, culture sizes were increased by AFB₁, AFB₂, and AFG₂ at 8 d post inoculation. These results indicate that AFB₁, AFB₂, and AFG₂ suppressed initial growth of these species in vitro, while later growth in some species was either unaltered or enhanced.     

Effect of citric acid on aflatoxin degradation and on functional and textural properties of extruded sorghum

Sorghum contaminated with a total concentration of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and aflatoxin B₂ (AFB₂) at 140 ± 7.3 ng/g was extrusion-cooked in a single screw extruder. The temperature profile in the barrel sections of the extruder was 80–150–200 °C. The flour moisture content (M.C.) was adjusted at 200, 250 and 300 g/kg by means of aqueous citric acid at concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8N. The barrel temperature profile, in combination with the M.C. and the citric acid concentration, significantly affected the extent of aflatoxin reduction in the extruded sorghum. The recovered aflatoxin decreased with an increase in M.C. and acid concentration. The maximum percentage of aflatoxins degraded from cooking the milled sorghum ranged from 17 to 92%. Even when using a severe extrusion condition combined with high citric acid concentrations, acceptable product colour, viscosity, functional and textural properties were obtained.     

Mycotoxins in foods in Lower Saxony (Germany): results of official control analyses performed in 2009

In this presentation, the mycotoxin levels—as analysed by the analytical centre for mycotoxin surveillance of the state food laboratory (LAVES Braunschweig)—for approximately 500 food samples are reported. The samples were collected in the year 2009 at retail in the German federal state of Lower Saxony. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A were analysed in dried fruits, spices, cereals and tree nuts. Ochratoxin A was detected in all samples of dried vine fruits, at levels up to 8.1 μg/kg. Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A were also found in nutmeg and curry powder: the maximum regulatory levels for aflatoxins were exceeded in 25% of the nutmeg samples. Nearly all samples of basmati rice contained aflatoxins, although at levels below the maximum regulatory level in all but one sample. Aflatoxins were also detected in about 50% of hazelnut samples, in 20% of the samples the maximum levels was exceeded (maximum 23.2 μg/kg). In contrast, aflatoxin contents in pistachios were surprisingly low. Fusarium toxins were analysed in cereals and cereal products such as flour, bread, and pasta. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was the predominant toxin found in these samples: DON was found in about 40% of the samples, although the maximum levels were not exceeded (max. 418 μg/kg). Fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEA) were specifically analysed in maize products (snacks, flour and oil). Most of these samples (80%) were positive, but at levels not exceeding the maximum levels. Maximum levels were 98 μg/kg (ZEA) and 577 μg/kg (sum of FB₁ and FB₂). Ergot alkaloids (six major alkaloids) were analysed in rye flour, and approximately 50% were positive. The highest concentration of ergot alkaloids was 1,063 μg/kg; the predominant alkaloids were ergotamine and ergocristine. In conclusion, the results indicate that continuous and efficient control measures for mycotoxins in a wide range of critical foods are necessary to ensure compliance with maximum levels. Although the mycotoxin levels in the vast majority of samples were below maximum levels, year-to-year variation and changes in the production of relevant commodities may result in a different picture in the future.     

Mycobiota and mycotoxins in malted barley and brewer's spent grain from Argentinean breweries

Aims: To evaluate mycobiota and aflatoxins B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁), G₂ (AFG₂) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) contamination in different malted barley types and brands and brewer’s grain collected from a major Argentinean brewery. Methods and Results: Total fungal counts were performed using the plate count method. Aflatoxin B₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂ and Zearalenone (ZEA) analyses were performed by thin‐layer chromatography (TLC). Fumonisin B₁ was determined by HPLC. Eighty‐three percentage of the malted barley (100% M1, 50% M2 and 100% M3) and 61% of brewer’s grain samples had a count >1 × 10⁴ CFU g^?1. Yeasts were isolated from all malt and brewer’s grain samples. Genera containing some of the most important mycotoxin producer species –Fusarium ssp., Aspergillus ssp., Penicillium ssp. and Alternaria ssp. – were isolated from the analysed samples, along with other environmental saprophytic fungi such as Geotrichum ssp., Mucorales and Cladosporium ssp. All samples were contaminated with 104–145 μg kg^?1 FB₁. Eighteen per cent of brewer’s grain samples were contaminated with 19–44·52 μg kg^?1 AFB₁. Aflatoxin B₂, AFG₁, AFG₂ and ZEA were not detected in any of the analysed samples. Conclusions: Fungal and mycotoxin contamination in malt and brewer’s grain is an actual risk for animal and human health. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study may be useful for assessing the risk of mycotoxins in Argentinean beers and especially in animal feeds.