DNA footprints of European hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus and E. concolor: Pleistocene refugia, postglacial expansion and colonization routes

European hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus and E. concolor, are among the many European plant and animal taxa that have been subjected to cyclical restriction to glacial refugia and interglacial expansion. An analysis of 95 mitotypes, comprising partial cytochrome b and control region sequences, shows deep divergence between the two hedgehog species. Three europaeus and two concolor clades are clearly identified and are consistent with previously identified refugia for Europe: the Iberian peninsula, Italy, and the Balkans. The degree of mitochondrial divergence among these clades suggests pre-Pleistocene separation of the refugial populations. In contrast, analysis of two nuclear introns clearly separates the two concolor clades, as in the mitochondrial data, but cannot discriminate the three europaeus clades. This discrepancy between nuclear and mitochondrial data is attributed to historical differences in the refugial population size of europaeus and concolor. The geographical distribution of mitotypes is analysed using nested clade analysis. This method, by including unobserved ('missing') mitotypes, can identify mitotype groupings that remain undetected in conventional analyses. However, the application of nested clade analysis to the study of refugial populations may be hampered by such factors as the loss of haplotypes from the refugial areas by repeated contractions of the population and the recent time scale of colonization relative to mutation rate.     

Understanding the phylogeographic patterns of European hedgehogs, Erinaceus concolor and E. europaeus using the MHC

The genome of the European hedgehog, Erinaceus concolor and E. europaeus, shows a strong signal of cycles of restriction to glacial refugia and postglacial expansion. Patterns of expansion, however, differ for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and preliminary analysis of nuclear markers. In this study, we determine phylogeographic patterns in the hedgehog using two loci of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), isolated for the first time in hedgehogs. These genes show long persistence times and high polymorphism in many species because of the actions of balancing selection. Among 84 individuals screened for variation, only two DQA alleles were identified in each species, but 10 DQB alleles were found in E. concolor and six in E. europaeus. A strong effect of demography on patterns of DQB variability is observed, with only weak evidence of balancing selection. While data from mtDNA clearly subdivide both species into monophyletic subgroups, the MHC data delineate only E. concolor into distinct subgroups, supporting the preliminary findings of other nuclear markers. Together with differences in variability, this suggests that the refugia history and/or expansion patterns of E. concolor and E. europaeus differ.     

Chromosome numbers and geographical distribution of Ulex europaeus subsp. europaeus (Leguminosae)

FERNANDEZ PRIETO, J. A., VERA, M. L., ALVAREZ MARTINEZ, M. J., DIAZ, T. E., FERNANDEZ CASADO, M. A., FERNANDEZ-CARVAJAL, M. C, GUTIERREZ VILLARIAS, M. I. & NAVA, H. S., 1993. Chromosome numbers and geographical distribution of Ulex europaeus subsp. europaeus (Leguminosae). Chromosome numbers are reported in Ulex europaeus subsp. europaeus (99 samples from northern Spain, France and Great Britain). Three levels of ploidy (diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid) have been detected; the diploid and tetraploid levels, hitherto unknown in this taxon, have been found exclusively in coastal areas of northern Spain and western France.     

Karyotypic study of four gibbon forms provisionally considered as subspecies of Hylobates (Nomascus) concolor (Primates, Hylobatidae)

We report here a karyotypic study of 6 individuals of Hylobates concolor leucogenys, 2H, concolor siki, 3H, concolor gabriellae, 1 hybrid H, concolor leucogenys x H. concolor ski, 3 hybrid H. concolor gabriellae x H. concolor siki and 2 hybrid H. concolor hainanus x H. concolor leucogenys. Difficulties raised by the morphological identification of subspecies are discussed, and a new morphological characteristic for recognising female H. concolor gabriellae is described. Each of the 4 subspecies appears to be distinguishable on the basis of its karyotype: H. concolor leucogenys differs from H. concolor siki by a reciprocal translocation, from H. concolor hainanus by a pericentric inversion and from H. concolor gabriellae by the presence of both of these two rearrangements. However, these data do not allows us to identify a phylogenetic relationship between the subspecies because, with respect to the karyotypes, none occupies an ancestral position in comparison with the others.     

When east met west: the sub-fossil footprints of the west European hedgehog and the northern white-breasted hedgehog during the Late Quaternary in Europe

The distinct distribution of the west European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus and the northern white-breasted hedgehog Erinaceus roumanicus and their separate refugial origins after the Pleistocene is a well-known example in the zoogeography of the Holarctic. Among the Late Quaternary faunal assemblages, the west European hedgehog is recorded at 269 sites whereas the northern white-breasted hedgehog is recorded only at 52 sites in Europe. The distribution patterns of the temporal and spatial Glacial records of the west European hedgehog show a general trend: a strong restriction to glacial refugia (the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas) during the Weichselian Glacial until the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, and a colonization of southern France during the early Late Glacial between 14 000 and 125 00 ¹⁴C years BP (15 000–12 800 cal. BC). Whereas the British Isles could have already been colonised by the end of the Pre-Boreal, in the rest of Central Europe E. europaeus was clearly distributed there in the Boreal for the first time. The west European hedgehog is an absolute Holocene faunal element in Central Europe. It appears in most parts of Central Europe during the Early Holocene, when the west European hedgehog met its eastern relative, which probably was similarly sensitive. After meeting each other, the distribution limit of both Erinaceus species in Central Europe seems to have been relatively constant in its geographic extent. Because of the clear climatic correlation, E. europaeus should be considered as an indicator species for temperate climatic conditions of the Holocene fauna. This should be considered during the reconstruction of climatic conditions with the help of the analysis of quaternary faunal material.     

Genetic divergence and ecological specialisation of seed weevils (Exapion spp.) on gorses (Ulex spp.)

Abstract.  1. Reproductive isolation of sympatric populations may result from divergent selection of populations in different environments, and lead to ecological specialisation. In Brittany (France), the gorse Ulex europaeus (Fabaceae, Genisteae), may be encountered in sympatry with one of the two other gorse species present: U. gallii and U. minor . A recent study based on morphological identification of seed predators of gorse has shown that two weevil species (Curculionoidea, Apionidae) infest gorse pods at different seasons and have different host ranges: Exapion ulicis infests U. europaeus in spring, whereas E. lemovicinum infests U. gallii and U. minor in autumn. Weevil populations may thus have diverged in sympatry.
2. As morphological identification of weevils is often difficult and some of the characters used may exhibit individual or environmental variation, mitochondrial and nuclear sequences of weevils collected within pods of the three gorse species in 10 populations of Brittany were used to reconstruct their phylogeny.
3. The results reveal that species differentiation based on morphological characters is confirmed by the two molecular data sets, showing that E. ulicis and E. lemovicinum are distinct species, and suggesting the absence of host races. Finally, E. ulicis was able to use U. gallii and U. minor pods in spring in some years in some populations, which appeared to depend on the availability of pods present during its reproductive period.
4. Divergence between E. ulicis and E. lemovicinum may have resulted from temporal isolation of reproductive periods of weevil populations followed by specialisation of insects to host phenology.     

Banded chromosome study of the Iriomote cat

The G-banded karyotype of the Iriomote cat, Felis iriomotensis, was found to be indistinguishable from that of F. bengalensis, F. viverrinus, and F. concolor. The karyotype of these four cats is, however, distinguishable from karyotypes of all other species of cats whose chromosomes have been studied. Silver-staining showed nucleolar organizing regions on the satellited stalks of the E1 chromosomes. Based on morphological and cytogenetic parameters F. iriomotensis is probably most closely related to F. bengalensis, the only other wild felid native to Japan.     

Decision making by generalist and specialist aphids with the same genotype

One idea to explain the high incidence of specialisation in phytophagous insects is that their nervous systems are simple and unable to efficiently recognise multiple host plants. Here this 'neural limitations' hypothesis is tested using a generalist (the summer winged virginopara) and specialist (the autumn gynopara) morph of a single clone of the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae, that are almost identical morphologically and have the same genotype. Electrical monitoring of stylet behaviour and non-invasive behavioural observations are used to compare initial plant recognition, first reproduction, 'first registered phloem contact' and 'phloem acceptance' of the generalist and specialist on their specific host plants (generalist--herbaceous hosts, Beta vulgaris, Papaver dubium, Rumex obtusifolius, Vicia faba; specialist--woody host, Euonymus europaeus) and on the same host (E. europaeus). Additional analyses of behaviour over the first few minutes of plant contact are carried out for three mutual non-host plants: Euonymus alatus, Prunus padus and Brassica pekinensis. Few examples are found where the host-selection behaviour of the specialist on its host plant is more efficient than the generalist across its hosts and there is little difference in the behaviour of the different forms on the same host. Indeed there are several instances where the generalist is behaviourally more efficient than the specialist. These include absolute time to first reproduction by the generalist on various herbaceous hosts and the same host, E. europaeus, absolute time to first registered phloem contact by the generalist on P. dubium, and incidence of phloem acceptance by the generalist on several of its herbaceous hosts. Rejection of non-hosts is carried out more efficiently by the specialist gynopara on P. padus and B. pekinensis but not on E. alatus. For generalist and specialist morphs of the same A. fabae genotype, therefore, broad host range does not appear to be associated with a reduced ability to make plant-use decisions.     

Molecular systematics of the genus Artibeus (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae)

A molecular phylogeny of the genus Artibeus using 19 of the 20 recognized species, many with samples from a broad geographic range, is presented. The analysis shows a clear distinction between the two subgenera (or genera), the 'large'Artibeus and the 'small'Dermanura, in both mitochondrial and nuclear genes. The placement and status of A. concolor remains inconclusive and is presented as the third subgenus Koopmania. The phylogenies and divergence time estimates show a marked influence of the Andes in the formation of the subgenera and the main lineages inside each subgenus. Nuclear genes showed a highly incomplete lineage sorting among species inside subgenera Artibeus and Dermanura. Indeed, shared alleles were also found between Artibeus and Koopmania, which are presumed to have split apart during the Miocene, showing that great care should be taken in using these markers. Cytochrome-b gene divergences and monophyly analyses suggest that A. lituratus and A. intermedius are indeed conspecifics. These analyses also suggested the existence of at least four 'new' species revealing a significant cryptic diversity inside the genus.     

秋家蝇对两种卫矛植物的趋性

卫矛是常见的绿化植物,而秋家蝇Musca autumnalis De Geer是畜牧业的重要昆虫。在室内利用Y型嗅觉仪对欧洲卫矛Euonymus europaeus和胶东卫矛E. kiautschovicus气味对秋家蝇Musca autumnalis De Geer的引诱效果进行了研究。结果表明：两种植物都对秋家蝇的雌性成虫有引诱作用,而欧洲卫矛引诱效果更好。进一步对叶和花的气味进行的观察表明,卫矛吸引秋家蝇主要依靠花的气味,但叶的气味也有一定的吸引作用; 叶的气味对花的引诱效果有增效作用。利用几种试剂（水、乙醇和正己烷）对欧洲卫矛花的气味物质进行了抽提,测试结果表明水或乙醇抽提物比正己烷抽提物引诱效果更好; 冷冻花与新鲜花的引诱效果没有显著的差异。     

科罗拉多冷杉的抗旱性

以服务于科罗拉多冷杉（Abies concolor）的引种工作为目的,以科罗拉多冷杉的9个种源半年生幼苗为材料,对其进行了模拟干旱处理,测定了抗旱性的相关理化指标,并与同样处理下的我国本土冷杉辽东冷杉（A．holophylla）、峨嵋冷杉（A.squamata）及鳞皮冷杉（A.fabric）半年生幼苗的对应指标作比较分析,估测了科罗拉多冷杉在我国的适生范围。     

Purification and characterization of a new type lactose-binding Ulex europaeus lectin by affinity chromatography

A new type lactose-binding lectin was purified from extracts of Ulex europaeus seeds by affinity chromatography on a column of galactose-Sepharose 4B, followed by gel filtration on Sephacryl S-300. This lectin, designated as Ulex europaeus lectin III (UEA-III), was found to be inhibited by lactose. The dimeric lectin is a glycoprotein with a molecular mass of 70,000 Da; it consists of two apparently identical subunits of a molecular mass of 34,000 Da. Compositional analysis showed that this lectin contains 30% carbohydrate and a large amount of aspartic acid, serine and valine, but no sulfur-containing amino acids. The N-terminal amino-acid sequences of L-fucose-binding Ulex europaeus lectin I (UEA-I) and di-N-acetylchitobiose-binding Ulex europaeus lectin II (UEA-II), both of which we have already purified and characterized, and that of UEA-III were determined and compared.     

科罗拉多冷杉的抗旱性

以服务于科罗拉多冷杉(Abies concolor)的引种工作为目的, 以科罗拉多冷杉的9个种源半年生幼苗为材料, 对其进行了模拟干旱处理, 测定了抗旱性的相关理化指标, 并与同样处理下的我国本土冷杉辽东冷杉(A. holophyl la)、峨嵋冷杉(A.squamata)及鳞皮冷杉(A. fabric)半年生幼苗的对应指标作比较分析, 估测了科罗拉多冷杉在我国的适生范围。     

Demonstration of a phospholipase A2 inhibitor in human plasma and in plasma from the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)

1. Endogenous phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors in human plasma and in plasma from the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) were demonstrated. 2. The PLA2 activity increased 45-fold in human plasma when a PLA2 binding factor was removed. Furthermore, two peaks of PLA2 inhibitory activity were found after DEAE-chromatography. 3. High levels of PLA2 inhibitory activity was found in plasma from the European hedgehog, E. europaeus. 4. The molecular weight was estimated to 140,000. 5. On DEAE-chromatography two peaks were found which were chromatographically similar to the PLA2 inhibitors in human plasma.     

Comparative macro- and microscopic anatomy of the nasal cavity of European insectivores]

The topography of the nasal fossa and its epithelium were studied in 4 European Insectivores, Sorex araneus L., Crocidura russula (Hermann), Talpa europaea L. and Erinaceus europaeus L. The following results were obtained: 1. The length of the nasal capsules is in relation to the length of the head in all 4 species the same. 2. The noses of all forms studies, except E. europaeus are very similar because of the trunk-shaped pars anterior nasi. 3. The numbers of turbinals are constant. 4. Of all turbinals the atrio-turbinal is ventrally the rostral one, and in the shrews it is considerably longer than in E. europaeus and T. europaea. 5. There is a maxillo-turbinal caudal of the atrio-turbinal. Both of these turbinals can be found separated by an incisura atrio-maxillo-turbinalis in T. europaea and the shrews. In E. europaeus the skeleton of the 2 turbinals is bridged by a fold of mucous membrane. 6. The maxillo-turbinal is bilamellar in T. europaea and the shrews, with each of the laminae rolled up in opposite direction. The surface of the maxillo-turbinal of E. europaeus is increased enormously by means of secondary folds. 7. The naso-turbinal begins almost at the tip of the nose and approaches the lamina cribrosa, where it disappears. One can discern 3 differently shaped parts of the naso-turbinal: Crus orale, crus intermedium and crus aborale. The nasoturbinal originates out of 2 different structures (the crus orale of the naso-turbinal and the lamina semicircularis) which are ontogenetically different, however, they have become fused during ontogeny, thus forming a structure which seems to be homogenous. 8. There are 3 ethmo-turbinals. The 1st ethmo-turbinal is the largest one and its free anterior tip is found in the intermediate part of the nasal fossa. Its epi-turbinal is an accessory lamella found in the aboral part of the first ethmoturbinal. Except in S. araneus it always appears in paraseptal views between the ethmo-turbinal I and II. 9. There are 3 ecto-turbinals. 2 ecto-turbinals are situated between the naso-turbinal and the ethmo-turbinal I, whereas the 3rd ecto-turbinal appears between ethmo-turbinal I and II. 10. There are 3 recesses of the lateral parts of the nasal fossa: The recessus frontalis anterior is found rostral-dorsally of the pars intermediate of the nasal fossa. The recessus frontalis posterior communicates with the former, but is located caudal of it. The 3rd recessus sphenoidalis is actually a subcerebral niche of the nasal fossa in the os sphenoidale. 11. There is only one pneumatic cavity in Insectivores, the sinus maxillaris. 12. The nasal fossa can be divided into a regio vestibularis, regio respiratoria and regio olfactoria. The epithelium of the nasal fossa is similar in all forms studied. 13. The anterior part of the oral regio vestibularis is outlined by keratinized epithelium; posteriorly, by loosing its stratum corneum, it changes into unkeratinized pseudostratified epithelium. 14...     

Relationships between abiotic variables and geographic variation in skulls of pumas (Puma concolor: Mammalia, Felidae) in North and South America

Relationships between patterns of geographic variation in cranial morphology and selected abiotic variables were studied in the puma ( Puma concolor Linnaeus). Our dataset consisted of 11 cranial, 6 dental, and 2 mandibular measurements of 1700 adults, which were separated by gender and age class and analysed by univariate and multivariate statistical procedures. Variation in size was correlated with precipitation, but size was more highly correlated with latitude and temperature. The pattern of geographic variation in size of P. concolor is consistent with Bergmann's rule; populations with larger pumas occur more distant from the equator than populations with smaller pumas. A combination of climatic and biotic factors contribute to patterns of geographic variation in size of P. concolor in North and South America.     

Parasitic effect of Opius concolor (Spzl) (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) on an intermediate host Ceratitis capitata Wied (Diptera, Trypetidae)

The parasitic incidence of Opius concolor (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) on a replacement host, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera, Trypetidae) was studied using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoelectrophoresis methods. A noticeable modification of C. capitata proteins was observed when parasited by O. concolor. But the most important phenomenon is the finding of common antigens between the host and the parasite. These results are discussed with regard to trophic and parasitic behaviour of the parasite.     

Genetic and phylogenetic divergence of feline immunodeficiency virus in the puma (Puma concolor).

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a lentivirus which causes an AIDS-like disease in domestic cats (Felis catus). A number of other felid species, including the puma (Puma concolor), carry a virus closely related to domestic cat FIV. Serological testing revealed the presence of antibodies to FIV in 22% of 434 samples from throughout the geographic range of the puma. FIV-Pco pol gene sequences isolated from pumas revealed extensive sequence diversity, greater than has been documented in the domestic cat. The puma sequences formed two highly divergent groups, analogous to the clades which have been defined for domestic cat and lion (Panthera leo) FIV. The puma clade A was made up of samples from Florida and California, whereas clade B consisted of samples from other parts of North America, Central America, and Brazil. The difference between these two groups was as great as that reported among three lion FIV clades. Within puma clades, sequence variation is large, comparable to between-clade differences seen for domestic cat clades, allowing recognition of 15 phylogenetic lineages (subclades) among puma FIV-Pco. Large sequence divergence among isolates, nearly complete species monophyly, and widespread geographic distribution suggest that FIV-Pco has evolved within the puma species for a long period. The sequence data provided evidence for vertical transmission of FIV-Pco from mothers to their kittens, for coinfection of individuals by two different viral strains, and for cross-species transmission of FIV from a domestic cat to a puma. These factors may all be important for understanding the epidemiology and natural history of FIV in the puma.     

A new small myotoxin from the venom of the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis)

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass spectrometry was used to identify a new small myotoxin from the venom of the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis). FAB mass spectrometry and Edman degradation were used to characterize its structure. This toxin is similar to myotoxin I from C. v. concolor, except that it possesses an additional. C-terminal asparaginyl-alanine. At 45 residues it is the longest known myotoxin a homolog. A myotoxin of 43 residues, identical to myotoxin I from C. v. concolor, was also found. To date no other species has been shown to produce more than one length of myotoxin. The present paper documents 42-, 43-, and 45-residue myotoxins from the venom of a single animal.     

Scanning electron microscopic study of hedgehog uteri

Ultrastructural studies of hedgehog uteri (Erinaceus europaeus L.) have been made using animals in anestrus, in estrus and in estrus after sojourn of a week with a male. In estrus and anestrus the uterine epithelium is homogeneous, regularly interrupted by orifices of glands. It is composed of microvillous cells only. Microvilli decrease in number and length in anestrus. A new type of cell, a ciliated cell, appears after copulation. Probable correlation of ultrastructural aspects of endometrium with hormonal situation is discussed.