Loss of Tonoplast Integrity Programmed in Tracheary Element Differentiation

A tracheary element (TE) is a typical example of a cell type that undergoes programmed cell death in the developmental processes of vascular plants. The loss of the selective permeability of the tonoplast, which corresponds to tonoplast disintegration, occurred after the cells commenced secondary wall thickening and played a pivotal role in the programmed cell death of TEs in a zinnia (Zinnia elegans L.) cell culture. A search for events specifically associated with the TE vacuole provided an important clue to the understanding of the cell death mechanism. The transport of fluorescein, a fluorescent organic anion, across the tonoplast declined drastically in differentiating TEs. The capacity of the vacuole to accumulate the probe was also impaired. Treatment with probenecid, an inhibitor of organic anion transport, caused rapid cell death of TEs and led to the ultimate disruption of the vacuole even in other types of cultured cells. These changes in vacuolar properties during TE development were suppressed by cycloheximide. Specific mRNA accumulation in cells cultured in a TE differentiation-inductive condition was abolished by probenecid. These results suggest that a change in vacuolar membrane permeability promotes programmed cell death in TEs.     

Proteasome Inhibitors Prevent Tracheary Element Differentiation in Zinnia Mesophyll Cell Cultures

To determine whether proteasome activity is required for tracheary element (TE) differentiation, the proteasome inhibitors clasto-lactacystin β-lactone and carbobenzoxy-leucinyl-leucinyl-leucinal (LLL) were used in a zinnia (Zinnia elegans) mesophyll cell culture system. The addition of proteasome inhibitors at the time of culture initiation prevented differentiation otherwise detectable at 96 h. Inhibition of the proteasome at 48 h, after cellular commitment to differentiation, did not alter the final percentage of TEs compared with controls. However, proteasome inhibition at 48 h delayed the differentiation process by approximately 24 h, as indicated by examination of both morphological markers and the expression of putative autolytic proteases. These results indicate that proteasome function is required both for induction of TE differentiation and for progression of the TE program in committed cells. Treatment at 48 h with LLL but not clasto-lactacystin β-lactone resulted in partial uncoupling of autolysis from differentiation. Results from gel analysis of protease activity suggested that the observed incomplete autolysis was due to the ability of LLL to inhibit TE cysteine proteases.     

Programmed Cell Death During the Vessel Element Differentiation of the Secondary Xylem in Eucommia ulmoides Shoots

The result from in situ end-labelling of fragmented DNA indicated that the vessel element differentiation of the secondary xylem in Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. was a typical programmed cell death (PCD) which involved a series of events, viz. synthesis of components essential for the secondary wall formation and a well organized succession of protoplast degeneration and autolysis in the tracheary cells. The nuclei gradually became irregular with highly condensed chromatin. In some nuclei, the cistema of the nuclear envelope became unevenly dilated within which some inner membrane protrusion enclosed with nuclear materials were present. The nuclear envelope underwent disruption and the nucleus eventually degenerated. However, as the nucleus was one of the most stable components in the cell, it was among the last organelles disappeared during the autolytic process. In the process, there were two forms of degeneration in the mitochondria (Mit). In one form the Mit shrank and became disorganized; in the other, part of the matrix in the Mit became electron-lucent with breakage of the membrane nearby. The cytoplasmic component residues were phagocitized and sequestered by the dilated rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) cisternae. The RER and vacuoles did play a vital role in the further degeneration of other organelles just similar to the lysosomes acting in the animal cells. The autolyzed debri might be utilized in situ by taking part in the formation of secondary wall or be transported to the adjacent cells through the pits.     

杜仲次生木质部分化过程中的细胞编程死亡

通过电子显微镜观察、DNA断裂检测及类似半胱氨酸蛋白酶（caspase-like proteases,CLPs)降解检测等技术,对杜仲（Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.）次生木质部分化过程的细胞编程死亡进行了研究。分化中的次生木质部细胞总DNA凝胶电泳检测到DNA ladder,并通过TUNEL检测进一步确定了DNA被降解。Western blot结果表明：caspase-8和caspase-3状蛋白酶（caspase-8-和caspase-3-like proteases,CLPs)及多聚ADP-核糖聚合酶（poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase,PARP)在次生木质部分化过程中被降解。这些研究结果表明,杜仲次生木质部的细胞分化是一个典型的编程性死亡（Programmed cell death,PCD)过程,CLPs可能参与了此过程。     

杜仲次生木质部分化过程中的细胞编程死亡

通过电子显微镜观察、DNA断裂检测及类似半胱氨酸蛋白酶(caspase-like proteases,CLPs)降解检测等技术,对杜仲(Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.)次生木质部分化过程的细胞编程死亡进行了研究.分化中的次生木质部细胞总DNA凝胶电泳检测到DNA ladder,并通过TUNEL检测进一步确定了DNA被降解.Western blot结果表明;caspase-8和caspase-3状蛋白酶(caspase-8-和caspase-3-like proteases,CLPs)及多聚ADP-核糖聚合酶(poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase,PARP)在次生木质部分化过程中被降解.这些研究结果表明,杜仲次生木质部的细胞分化是一个典型的编程性死亡(Programmed cell death,PCD)过程,CLPs可能参与了此过程.     

人程序性细胞死亡因子10(PDCD10)：不仅与细胞凋亡相关

人程序性细胞死亡因子10(programmed cell death 10,PDCD10)最初被称为TFAR15(TF-1 cell apoptosis related gene 15),是在1999年运用cDNA-RDA技术首先克隆得到的一个新基因,早期研究提示与凋亡抑制功能相关.近期国外多项研究证明,PDCD10基因的缺失和突变与颅内海绵状血管瘤(cerebral cavernous malformations,CCM)的发生密切相关,CCM的第三个致病基因CCM3即为PDCD10.此外,其他研究表明,PDCD10受到严格的表达调控,在多种肿瘤组织中表达明显上调,提示可能在肿瘤的信号转导通路中起重要作用.最近通过对PDCD10相互作用蛋白的分析和研究,首次证实了PDCD10可以和Ste20激酶家族成员MST4相互作用,增强其激酶活性,并进而通过对ERK-MAPK通路的调控,促进细胞增殖和转化.以上研究证明了PDCD10的多种生物学效应,并提示其在血管生成和肿瘤中发挥重要作用.     

A Change in Tubulin Synthesis in the Process of Tracheary Element Differentiation and Cell Division of Isolated Zinnia Mesophyll Cells

Changes in tubulin synthesis in the process of cytodifferentiationinto tracheary elements and cell division were investigatedusing a culture of single cells isolated from the mesophyllof Zinnia elegans. The tubulin content was measured by a sensitiveimmunoblotting method using a mouse monoclonal antibody to -or ß-tubulin as a probe and mung bean tubulin as astandard. Freshly isolated mesophyll cells had only small amountsof tubulin, but the content increased rapidly between 24 and48 h of culture before morphological differentiation and celldivision. The content rose more than sixfold during 48 h cultureand then decreased slightly. This pattern of increase closelyresembled that of the increase in cortical microtubules (MTs)estimated by electron microscopic analysis. The - and ß-tubulincontents in the cultured cells were almost the same and changedin coordination during culture. The activity of tubulin synthesis was determined by densitometricscanning of spots corresponding to tubulin subunits on an autoradiogramof a two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel of [³⁵S]-methionine-labeledproteins. Tubulin synthesis began as early as between 4 and8 h of culture and its rate increased similarly to the increasein the tubulin content, with the former always preceding thelatter, indicating that the increase in content resulted fromnew tubulin synthesis. (Received December 16, 1986; Accepted February 25, 1987)     

Developmental Coordination of Gamete Differentiation with Programmed Cell Death in Sporulating Yeast

The gametogenesis program of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as sporulation, employs unusual internal meiotic divisions, after which all four meiotic products differentiate within the parental cell. We showed previously that sporulation is typically accompanied by the destruction of discarded immature meiotic products through their exposure to proteases released from the mother cell vacuole, which undergoes an apparent programmed rupture. Here we demonstrate that vacuolar rupture contributes to de facto programmed cell death (PCD) of the meiotic mother cell itself. Meiotic mother cell PCD is accompanied by an accumulation of depolarized mitochondria, organelle swelling, altered plasma membrane characteristics, and cytoplasmic clearance. To ensure that the gametes survive the destructive consequences of developing within a cell that is executing PCD, we hypothesized that PCD is restrained from occurring until spores have attained a threshold degree of differentiation. Consistent with this hypothesis, gene deletions that perturb all but the most terminal postmeiotic spore developmental stages are associated with altered PCD. In these mutants, meiotic mother cells exhibit a delay in vacuolar rupture and then appear to undergo an alternative form of PCD associated with catastrophic consequences for the underdeveloped spores. Our findings reveal yeast sporulation as a context of bona fide PCD that is developmentally coordinated with gamete differentiation.     

细胞程序性死亡与帕金森病的相关研究进展

帕金森病发病机制至今未明,近几年研究发现,线粒体依赖性PCD通路的激活在PD发病过程中是不可缺少的,不同形态学表现的细胞死亡形式在帕金森病发病过程中可以共同存在,而所有的这些细胞死亡都归因于PCD共同的上游通路的激活。PCD通路不仅仅是指线粒体介导的caspase依赖性凋亡,还包括非caspase依赖性细胞非凋亡性死亡,比如细胞坏死。这不仅仅是概念上的延伸,更为我们在帕金森病神经保护性治疗上提供了更多的靶点,有助于寻求神经保护的新方法和延缓神经退行性疾病的进程.抗凋亡治疗已经成为帕金森病等神经退行性疾病治疗的新热点,已经证实,caspase抑制剂能够通过抑制caspase的激活,阻止细胞退行性病变。那么将位于caspase执行者上游的Bax作为靶点,抑制Bax的激活与转位,能够产生更为持久显著的神经保护作用。本文综述了近年来相关研究进展。     

Involvement of Proline Oxidase (PutA) in Programmed Cell Death of Xanthomonas

Xanthomonas campestris strains have been reported to undergo programmed cell death (PCD) in a protein rich medium. Protein hydrolysates used in media such as nutrient broth comprise of casein digest with abundance of proline and glutamate. In the current study, X. campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) cells displayed PCD when grown in PCD inducing medium (PIM) containing casein tryptic digest. This PCD was also observed in PCD non-inducing carbohydrate rich medium (PNIM) fortified with either proline or proline along with glutamate. Surprisingly, no PCD was noticed in PNIM fortified with glutamate alone. Differential role of proline or glutamate in inducing PCD in Xcc cells growing in PNIM was studied. It was found that an intermediate product of this oxidation was involved in initiation of PCD. Proline oxidase also called as proline utilization A (PutA), catalyzes the two step oxidation of proline to glutamate. Interestingly, higher PutA activity was noticed in cells growing in PIM, and PCD was found to be inhibited by tetrahydro-2-furoic acid, a competitive inhibitor of this enzyme. Further, PCD was abolished in Xcc ΔputA strain generated using a pKNOCK suicide plasmid, and restored in Xcc ΔputA strain carrying functional PutA in a plasmid vector. Xanthomonas cells growing in PIM also displayed increased generation of ROS, as well as cell filamentation (a probable indication of SOS response). These filamented cells also displayed enhanced caspase-3-like activity during in situ labeling using a fluorescent tagged caspase-3 inhibitor (FITC-DEVD-FMK). The extent of PCD associated markers such as DNA damage, phosphatidylserine externalization and membrane depolarization were found to be significantly enhanced in wild type cells, but drastically reduced in Xcc ΔputA cells. These findings thus establish the role of PutA mediated proline oxidation in regulating death in stressed Xanthomonas cells.     

Epigenetics and Cell Death: DNA Hypermethylation in Programmed Retinal Cell Death

Background

Vertebrate genomes undergo epigenetic reprogramming during development and disease. Emerging evidence suggests that DNA methylation plays a key role in cell fate determination in the retina. Despite extensive studies of the programmed cell death that occurs during retinal development and degeneration, little is known about how DNA methylation might regulate neuronal cell death in the retina.

Methods

The developing chicken retina and the rd1 and rhodopsin-GFP mouse models of retinal degeneration were used to investigate programmed cell death during retinal development and degeneration. Changes in DNA methylation were determined by immunohistochemistry using antibodies against 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC).

Results

Punctate patterns of hypermethylation paralleled patterns of caspase3-dependent apoptotic cell death previously reported to occur during development in the chicken retina. Degenerating rd1 mouse retinas, at time points corresponding to the peak of rod cell death, showed elevated signals for 5mC and 5hmC in photoreceptors throughout the retina, with the most intense staining observed in the peripheral retina. Hypermethylation of photoreceptors in rd1 mice was associated with TUNEL and PAR staining and appeared to be cCaspase3-independent. After peak rod degeneration, during the period of cone death, occasional hypermethylation was observed in the outer nuclear layer.

Conclusion

The finding that cell-specific increases of 5mC and 5hmC immunostaining are associated with the death of retinal neurons during both development and degeneration suggests that changes in DNA methylation may play a role in modulating gene expression during the process of retinal degeneration. During retinal development, hypermethylation of retinal neurons associates with classical caspase-dependent apoptosis as well as caspase-3 independent cell death, while hypermethylation in the rd1 mouse photoreceptors is primarily associated with caspase-3 independent programmed cell death. These findings suggest a previously unrecognized role for epigenetic mechanisms in the onset and/or progression of programed cell death in the retina.     

小鼠胚胎干细胞分化形成拟胚体过程中的细胞程序性死亡

为了检测小鼠胚胎干细胞 (embryonicstemcell ,ES细胞 )体外分化的拟胚体 (embryoidbodies ,EBs)形成过程中细胞程序性死亡 (programmedcelldeath ,PCD)的发生 ,通过悬滴、悬浮培养技术定向诱导未分化的ES细胞分化为拟胚体 ,并用RT PCR检测原始内胚层、原始外胚层、中胚层、内脏内胚层 4种分子标记物在EBs中的表达 .通过TUNEL染色、电镜、激光共聚焦显微镜及Western印迹以确定凋亡发生 .结果表明 :ES细胞体外分化为拟胚体并且表达各胚层相应的分子标记物 ;在拟胚体的发育过程中出现明显的空腔化过程 ,TUNEL染色及电镜观察到凋亡生成 ,同时线粒体膜电位 (ΔΨm)在拟胚体发育过程中降低 ,通过Western印迹检测到caspase3、caspase8的激活 .表明小鼠ES细胞所分化的拟胚体可以作为研究早期胚胎发育的实验模型 ,线粒体在拟胚体的细胞程序性死亡过程中发挥重要的作用 .为进一步利用拟胚体研究细胞程序性死亡及相关信号分子在小鼠胚胎发育早期的作用奠定了基础     

Cell Expansion and Tracheary Element Differentiation Are Regulated by Extracellular pH in Mesophyll Cultures of Zinnia elegans L

The effects of medium pH on cell expansion and tracheary element (TE) differentiation were investigated in differentiating mesophyll suspension cultures of Zinnia elegans L. In unbuffered cultures initially adjusted to pH 5.5, the medium pH fluctuated reproducibly, decreasing about 1 unit prior to the onset of TE differentiation and then increasing when the initiation of new Tes was complete. Elimination of large pH fluctuations by buffering the culture medium with 20 mM 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid altered both cell expansion and TE differentiation, whereas altering the starting pH of unbuffered culture medium had no effect on either process. Cell expansion in buffered cultures was pH dependent with an optimum of 5.5 to 6.0. The direction of cell expansion was also pH dependent in buffered cultures. Cells elongated at pH 5.5 to 6.0, whereas isodiametric cell expansion was predominant at pH 6.5 to 7.0. The onset of TE differentiation was delayed when the pH was buffered higher or lower than 5.0. However, TEs eventually appeared in cultures buffered at pH 6.5 to 7.0, indicating that a decrease in pH to 5.0 is not necessary for differentiation. Very large TEs with secondary cell wall thickenings resembling metaxylem differentiated in cultures buffered at pH 5.5 to 6.0, which also showed the greatest cell expansion. The correlation between cell expansion and delayed differentiation of large, metaxylem-like TEs may indicate a link between the regulatory mechanisms controlling cell expansion and TE differentiation.     

种子发育与萌发过程中的程序性细胞死亡

禾谷类种子胚乳发育过程中的程序性细胞死亡(PCD)主要发生在种子成熟期的后期,并伴随着生物合成的停止和自然脱水;乙烯和活性氧促进胚乳发育中的PCD,而ABA起负调节作用。种子萌发过程中糊粉层降解的PCD被GA、Ca^2 和活性氧促进,被ABA和抗氧化剂抑制。种子人工老化和劣变种子萌发过程中可能存在PCD事件,其研究对延长种子的贮藏寿命和提高播种品质具有重要的意义。     

活性氧与植物细胞编程性死亡

在各种条件诱导的植物细胞编程性死亡(PCD)过程中都有活性氧的参与,H2O2和O2可能是参与PCD调节的最重要的活性氧.文中概述了活性氧与植物细胞编程性死亡的关系以及活性氧的生成调节和与其它一些信号物质之间可能的相互作用.