Ambient temperature modulates the magnitude of LPS-induced fevers in Pekin ducks

The consequences of variations in environmental temperature on innate immune responses in birds are by and large not known. We investigated the influence of ambient temperature on the febrile response in female Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Ducks, implanted with temperature data loggers to measure body temperature, were injected with lipopolysaccharide (100 μg kg⁻¹) to evoke febrile responses and kept at ambient temperatures higher, within, and lower than their thermoneutral zone (n=10), and in conditions that simulated one day of a heat wave (n=6). Compared to the febrile response at thermoneutrality, at low temperatures, febrile responses were significantly attenuated; fevers reached lower magnitudes (from basal body temperature of 41.2±0.3 °C to a peak of 42.0±0.3 °C). In contrast, at high ambient temperatures, ducks rapidly developed significantly enhanced fevers, which reached markedly higher febrile peaks (from basal body temperature of 41.6 °C to a peak of 44.0 °C in a simulated heat wave when ambient temperature reached 40 °C). These results indicate that ambient temperature affects the febrile response in female Pekin ducks. Our findings reveal a key difference in febrile mediation between ducks and mammals, and have implications for avian survival because high environmental temperatures during febrile mediation could lead to febrile responses becoming physiologically deleterious.     

Cross-linked succinyl chitosan as an adsorbent for the removal of Methylene Blue from aqueous solution

Removal of a basic dye (Methylene Blue) from aqueous solution was investigated using a cross-linked succinyl-chitosan (SCCS) as sorbent. The chemical structures of chitosan and its derivatives were testified by FT-IR. X-ray diffraction, DTG analysis and swelling measurements were conducted to clarify the characteristics of the chemically modified chitosan. The effect of process parameters, such as pH of the initial solution, and concentrations of dyes on the extent of Methylene Blue (MB) adsorption was investigated. The Langmuir isotherm model was used to fit the equilibrium experimental data, giving a maximum sorption capacity of 289.02 mg/g at 298 K. Kinetic studies showed that the kinetic data were well described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy change (ΔH°), free energy change (ΔG°) and entropy change (ΔS°) were determined to be −25.32 kJ mol⁻¹, −6.76 kJ mol⁻¹ and −62.36 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively, which leads to a conclusion that the adsorption process is spontaneous and exothermic.     

Effect of temperature on phosphorus sorption to sediments from shallow eutrophic lakes

The availability of phosphorus (P) in lakes is dependent on the sorption characteristics of the underlying sediments. Temperature is a crucial factor affecting the P sorption in sediments. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of temperature on sorption of P by sediments from two eutrophic lakes. The study was carried out using short-term batch experiments at 4, 20 and 30 °C. Phosphorus sorption kinetics, isotherms, fractionation and desorption were investigated. The P sorption was dependent on sediment type and temperature (p < 0.001). The Mei sediments showed a higher sorption rate and sorption capacity than Hua sediments. The P sorption kinetics were best described by a pseudo second order model (R² > 0.97). Activation energies derived from the kinetics rate constant indicated that P sorption onto the two sediments was controlled by a diffusion process. For both sediments, Freundlich model fit the P sorption isotherms well and the calculated apparent sorption heat was 6.37 kJ mol⁻¹ for Mei sediments and 8.67 kJ mol⁻¹ for Hua sediments. This indicated that P sorption onto both sediments was endothermic. Adding P significantly increased the soluble and loosely bound P (S/L-P), aluminum-bound P (Al-P) and iron-bound P (Fe-P) (p < 0.05). The amount of Al-P and Fe-P was markedly higher at 30 °C than at 4 °C (p < 0.05). Subsequent P desorption indicated that adsorbed P was highly labile, in particular for Hua sediment. The degree of P mobility that occurred during sediment sorption was inversely related to the temperature at the time of sorption. A significant relationship (R² = 0.978) between phosphorus sorption maximum and oxalate-extractable Fe and Al at different temperatures reflects that the amorphous contents of Fe and Al are responsible for the temperature effect on P sorption.     

Thermoregulation by rhesus monkeys at different absolute humidities

The effect of relative humidity on thermoregulation has been well examined. Because the same relative humidity represents very different absolute humidities at different ambient temperatures, the present study was designed to examine the interaction of temperature and absolute humidity on the thermal balance of rhesus monkeys, Macaca mulatta. Thermal balance was examined in six unacclimated, unanesthetized, female rhesus monkeys at ambient temperatures of 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C and absolute humidities of 6, 22, and 40 torr. Monkeys were capable of achieving thermal balance under all conditions except at 40 °C with 40 torr absolute humidity, where experiments were stopped after rectal temperature exceeded 40.5 °C. At 40 °C, monkeys increased evaporative heat loss through both respiration and sweating; the slope of the relationship between evaporative heat loss and core temperature was attenuated by increases in absolute humidity. In contrast, absolute humidity had no direct effect on metabolic rate. The rise in body temperature under the conditions of high heat/high humidity was therefore most attributable to humidity-dependent decreases in evaporative heat loss.Abbreviations E_tot total evaporative heat loss - HR heart rate - K thermal conductance - M metabolic rate - RQ respiratory quotient - T_c core temperature - T_sk mean skin temperature - VCO₂ carbon dioxide production - VO₂ oxygen consumptionCommunicated by G. Heldmaier     

Energy efficiency of an outdoor microalgal photobioreactor sited at mid-temperate latitude

This work examined the energetic performance of a 6-month semi-continuous cultivation of Scenedesmus obliquus in an outdoor photobioreactor at mid-temperate latitude, without temperature control. By measuring the seasonal biomass production (mean 11.31, range 1.39-23.67 g m⁻² d⁻¹), higher heating value (22.94 kJ g⁻¹) and solar irradiance, the mean seasonally-averaged photosynthetic efficiency (2.18%) and gross energy productivity (0.27 MJ m⁻² d⁻¹) was calculated. When comparing the solar energy conversion efficiency to the energy investment for culture circulation, significant improvements in reactor energy input must be made to make the system viable. Using the data collected to model the energetic performance of a substitute photobioreactor design, we conclude that sustainable photobioreactor cultivation of microalgae in similar temperate climates requires a short light path and low power input, only reasonably obtained by flat-panel systems. However, temperature control was not necessary for effective long-term cultivation.     

Kinetic study of dissociation of Eu(III) complex with H8dotp (H8dotp = 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetrakis(methylphosphonic acid))

The dissociation kinetics of the europium(III) complex with H₈dotp ligand was studied by means of molecular absorption spectroscopy in UV region at ionic strength 3.0 mol dm⁻³ (Na,H)ClO₄ and in temperature region 25-60 °C. Time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy (TRLIFS) was employed in order to determine the number of water molecules in the first coordination sphere of the europium(III) reaction intermediates and the final products. This technique was also utilized to deduce the composition of reaction intermediates in course of dissociation reaction simultaneously with calculation of rate constants and it demonstrates the elucidation of intimate reaction mechanism. The thermodynamic parameters for the formation of kinetic intermediate (ΔH⁰ = 11 ± 3 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔS⁰ = 41 ± 11 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹) and the activation parameters (E_a = 69 ± 8 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔH^≠ = 67 ± 8 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔS^≠ = −83 ± 24 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹) for the rate-determining step describing the complex dissociation were determined. The mechanism of proton-assisted reaction was proposed on the basis of the experimental data.     

Thermodynamic analysis of hydration in human serum heme-albumin

Ferric human serum heme-albumin (heme-HSA) shows a peculiar nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion (NMRD) behavior that allows to investigate structural and functional properties. Here, we report a thermodynamic analysis of NMRD profiles of heme-HSA between 20 and 60 °C to characterize its hydration. NMRD profiles, all showing two Lorentzian dispersions at 0.3 and 60 MHz, were analyzed in terms of modulation of the zero field splitting tensor for the S = ⁵/₂ manifold. Values of correlation times for tensor fluctuation (τ_v) and chemical exchange of water molecules (τ_M) show the expected temperature dependence, with activation enthalpies of −1.94 and −2.46 ± 0.2 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively. The cluster of water molecules located in the close proximity of the heme is progressively reduced in size by increasing the temperature, with ΔH = 68 ± 28 kJ mol⁻¹ and ΔS = 200 ± 80 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹. These results highlight the role of the water solvent in heme-HSA structure-function relationships.     

A cryoprotective and cold-adapted 1,3-β-endoglucanase from cherimoya (Annona cherimola) fruit

A 1,3-β-glucanase with potent cryoprotective activity was purified to homogeneity from the mesocarp of CO₂-treated cherimoya fruit (Annona cherimola Mill.) stored at low temperature using anion exchange and chromatofocusing chromatography. This protein was characterized as a glycosylated endo-1,3-β-glucanase with a M_r of 22.07 kDa and a pI of 5.25. The hydrolase was active and stable in a broad acidic pH range and it exhibited maximum activity at pH 5.0. It had a low optimum temperature of 35 °C and it retained 40% maximum activity at 5 °C. The purified 1,3-β-glucanase was relatively heat unstable and its activity declined progressively at temperatures above 50 °C. Kinetic studies revealed low k_cat (3.10 ± 0.04 s⁻¹) and K_m (0.32 ± 0.03 mg ml⁻¹) values, reflecting the intermediate efficiency of the protein in hydrolyzing laminarin. Moreover, a thermodynamic characterization revealed that the purified enzyme displayed a high k_cat at both 37 and 5 °C, and a low E_a (6.99 kJ mol⁻¹) within this range of temperatures. In vitro functional studies indicated that the purified 1,3-β-glucanase had no inhibitory effects on Botrytis cinerea hyphal growth and no antifreeze activity, as determined by thermal hysteresis analysis using differential scanning calorimetry. However, a strong cryoprotective activity was observed against freeze-thaw inactivation of lactate dehydrogenase. Indeed, the PD₅₀ was 8.7 μg ml⁻¹ (394 nM), 9.2-fold higher (3.1 on a molar basis) than that of the cryoprotective protein BSA. Together with the observed accumulation of glycine-betaine in CO₂-treated cherimoya tissues, these results suggest that 1,3-β-glucanase could be functionally implicated in low temperature-defense mechanism activated by CO₂.     

Synergistic effects of high temperature and sulfide on tropical seagrass

To examine the synergism of high temperature and sulfide on two dominant tropical seagrass species, a large-scale mesocosm experiment was conducted in which sulfide accumulation rates (SAR) were increased by adding labile carbon (glucose) to intact seagrass sediment cores across a range of temperatures. During the initial 10 d of the 38 d experiment, porewater SAR in cores increased 2- to 3-fold from 44 and 136 μmol L^− 1 d^− 1 at 28-29 °C to 80 and 308 μmol L^− 1 d^− 1 at 34-35 °C in Halodule wrightii and Thalassia testudinum cores, respectively. Labile C additions to the sediment resulted in SAR of 443 and 601 μmol L^− 1 d^− 1 at 28-29 °C and 758 to 1,557 μmol L^− 1 d^− 1 at 34-35 °C in H. wrightii and T. testudinum cores, respectively. Both T. testudinum and H. wrightii were highly thermal tolerant, demonstrating their tropical affinities and potential to adapt to high temperatures. While plants survived the 38 d temperature treatments, there was a clear thermal threshold above 33 °C where T. testudinum growth declined and leaf quantum efficiencies (Fv/Fm) fell below 0.7. At this threshold temperature, H. wrightii maintained shoot densities and leaf quantum efficiencies. Although H. wrightii showed a greater tolerance to high temperature, T. testudinum had a greater capacity to sustain biomass and short shoots under thermal stress with labile C enrichment, regardless of the fact that sulfide levels in the T. testudinum cores were 2 times higher than in the H. wrightii cores. Tropical seagrass tolerance to elevated temperatures, predicted in the future with global warming, should be considered in the context of the sediment-plant complex which incorporates the synergism of plant physiological responses and shifts in sulfur biogeochemistry leading to increased plant exposure to sulfides, a known toxin.     

Metabolic thermogenesis and evaporative water loss in the Hwamei Garrulax canorus

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is thought to be a major hub in the network of physiological mechanisms connecting life history traits. Evaporative water loss (EWL) is a physiological indicator that is widely used to measure water relations in inter- or intraspecific studies of birds in different environments. In this study, we examined the physiological responses of summer-acclimatized Hwamei Garrulax canorus to temperature by measuring their body temperature (T_b), metabolic rate (MR) and EWL at ambient temperatures (T_a) between 5 and 40 °C. Overall, we found that mean body temperature was 42.4 °C and average minimum thermal conductance (C) was 0.15 ml O₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹ °C⁻¹ measured between 5 and 20 °C. The thermal neutral zone (TNZ) was 31.8–35.3 °C and BMR was 181.83 ml O₂ h⁻¹. Below the lower critical temperature, MR increased linearly with decreasing T_a according to the relationship: MR (ml O₂ h⁻¹)=266.59–2.66 T_a. At T_as above the upper critical temperature, MR increased with T_a according to the relationship: MR (ml O₂ h⁻¹)=−271.26+12.85 T_a. EWL increased with T_a according to the relationship: EWL (mg H₂O h⁻¹)=−19.16+12.64 T_a and exceeded metabolic water production at T_a>14.0 °C. The high T_b and thermal conductance, low BMR, narrow TNZ, and high evaporative water production/metabolic water production (EWP/MWP) ratio in the Hwamei are consistent with the idea that this species is adapted to warm, mesic climates, where metabolic thermogenesis and water conservation are not strong selective pressures.     

Development and validity of a universal empirical equation to predict skin surface temperature on thermal manikins

Clothing evaporative resistance is an important input in thermal comfort models. Thermal manikin tests give the most accurate and reliable evaporative resistance values for clothing. The calculation methods of clothing evaporative resistance require the sweating skin surface temperature (i.e., options 1 and 2). However, prevailing calculation methods of clothing evaporative resistance (i.e., options 3 and 4) are based on the controlled nude manikin surface temperature due to the sensory measurement difficulty. In order to overcome the difficulty of attaching temperature sensors to the wet skin surface and to enhance the calculation accuracy on evaporative resistance, we conducted an intensive skin study on a thermal manikin ‘Tore’. The relationship among the nude manikin surface temperature, the total heat loss and the wet skin surface temperature in three ambient conditions was investigated. A universal empirical equation to predict the wet skin surface temperature of a sweating thermal manikin was developed and validated on the manikin dressed in six different clothing ensembles. The skin surface temperature prediction equation in an ambient temperature range between 25.0 and 34.0 °C is T_sk=34.0–0.0132HL. It is demonstrated that the universal empirical equation is a good alternative to predicting the wet skin surface temperature and facilitates calculating the evaporative resistance of permeable clothing ensembles. Further studies on the validation of the empirical equation on different thermal manikins are needed however.     

Poikilothermic traits in Mashona mole-rat (Fukomys darlingi). Reality or myth?

The African mole-rats (Bathyergidae, Rodentia) is a mammalian family well known for a variety of ecophysiological adaptations for strictly belowground life. The smallest bathyergid, the hairless naked mole-rat from arid areas in Eastern Africa, is even famous as the only truly poikilothermic mammal. Another bathyergid, the Mashona mole-rat (Fukomys darlingi) from Zimbabwe, is supposed to have strong poikilothermic traits, because it is not able to maintain a stable body temperature at ambient temperatures below 20 °C. This is surprising because, compared to the naked mole-rat, this species, together with all congenerics, is larger, haired, and living in more seasonal environment. In addition, other Fukomys mole-rats show typical mammalian pattern in resting metabolic rates. In our study, we measured resting metabolic rate and body temperature of Mashona mole-rats from Malawi across a gradient of ambient temperatures to test its poikilothermic traits. We found that the adult mass specific resting metabolic rate was 0.76±0.20 ml O₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹ and body temperature 34.8±1.1 °C in the thermoneutral zone (27–34 °C). Body temperature was stable (33.0±0.5 °C) at ambient temperatures from 10 to 25 °C. We thus cannot confirm poikilothermic traits in this species, at least for its Malawian population. Factors potentially explaining the observed discrepancy in Mashona mole-rat energetics are discussed.     

High-rate nitrogen removal by the Anammox process at ambient temperature

The purpose of this study is to investigate the nitrogen removal performance of the anaerobic ammonium oxidation (Anammox) process and the microbial community that enables the Anammox system to function well at ambient temperatures. A reactor with a novel spiral structure was used as the gas-solid separator. The reactor was fed with synthetic inorganic wastewater composed mainly of NH₄⁺-N and NO₂⁻-N, and operated for 92 days. Stable nitrogen removal rates (NRR) of 16.3 and 17.5 kg-N m⁻³ d⁻¹ were obtained at operating temperatures of 33 ± 1 and 23 ± 2 °C, respectively. To our knowledge, such a high NRR at ambient temperatures has not been reported previously. In addition, the experiments presented herein confirm that high influent NO₂⁻-N concentration of 460 mg L⁻¹ did not noticeably inhibit the Anammox activity. Furthermore, the freshwater Anammox bacterium KU2, which was identified as the dominant bacterial species in the consortium by 16S rRNA gene analysis, is considered to be responsible for the stable nitrogen removal performance at ambient temperatures.     

Seed germination of Lasia spinosa as a function of temperature,light, desiccation,and storage

Lasia spinosa seeds were not dormant at maturity in early spring. The most favorable temperatures for germination were between 25 and 30 °C, and final percentage and rate of germination decreased with an increase or decrease in temperature. When L. spinosa seeds were transferred to 25 °C, after 60 days at 10 °C (where none of the seeds germinated), final germination increased from 0% to 78%. Seeds germinated to high percentage both in light and in dark, although dark germination took more than twice as long as in the light. During desiccation of seeds at 15 °C and 45% relatively humidity, moisture loss decreased exponentially from 2.02 to 0.13 g H₂O g⁻¹ dry wt within 16 days, and only a few seeds (12%) survived 0.13 g H₂O g⁻¹ dry wt moisture content. Seeds stored at 0.58 g H₂O g⁻¹ dry wt moisture content at four constant temperatures (4, 10, 15, and −18 °C) for up to 6 months exhibited a well-defined trend of decreasing viability with decreasing temperature. Thus, we concluded that freshly harvested L. spinosa seeds are non-dormant and recalcitrant. Also, the seeds with 0.58 g H₂O g⁻¹ dry wt moisture content could be effectively stored for a few months between 10 and 15 °C although the most appropriate temperature for wet storage appears to be 10 °C, as it is close to the minimum temperature for germination and so there will be less pre-sprouting compared to 15 °C.     

Mycosporine-like amino acids in azooxanthellate and zooxanthellate early developmental stages of the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens

The ontogenetic changes of MAAs in the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens was studied in relation to their symbiotic state (azooxanthellate vs. zooxanthellate) under different temperature conditions in the Gulf of Eilat, northern Red Sea. The HPLC chromatograms for extracts of the planulae, azoo- and zooxanthellate primary polyps of H. fuscescens from all dates of collection yielded a single peak at 320 nm that has been identified as the compound palythine. Concentration of palythine in planulae at 23 °C was 7.57 ± 1 nmol mg^− 1 protein and at 28 °C reached 17.29 ± 1 nmol × mg^− 1 protein. Concentration of palythine in azooxanthellate primary polyps was 16.4 ± 3 nmol × mg^− 1 protein and 28.37 ± 2.8 nmol × mg^− 1 protein at 23 °C and 28 °C respectively. The palythine concentration for zooxanthellate primary polyps at 23 °C was 13 ± 3 nmol × mg^− 1 protein and at 28 °C 32.7 ± 2 nmol mg^− 1 protein. Palythine concentrations were significantly higher at 28 °C in the different animal groups and correlated linearly with the ambient collection temperature. This study shows for the first time that UVR and temperature act synergistically and affect the MAA levels of early life-history stages of soft corals.     

Heat tolerance and physiological plasticity in the Antarctic collembolan, Cryptopygus antarcticus, and mite, Alaskozetes antarcticus

Polar amplification of global warming has led to an average 2 °C rise in air temperatures in parts of the polar regions in the last 50 years. Poikilothermic ectotherms that are found in these regions, such as Collembola and mites, may therefore be put under pressure by changing environmental conditions. However, it has also been suggested that the thermal sensitivity of invertebrates declines with higher latitudes and, therefore, that polar ectotherms may not be at risk. In the current study, the heat tolerance and physiological plasticity to heat stress of two well-studied Antarctic invertebrates, the collembolan, Cryptopygus antarcticus, and the mite, Alaskozetes antarcticus, were investigated. Both species showed considerable heat tolerance, with each having an Upper Lethal Temperature (ULT) above 35 °C (1 h exposure). These species were also able to survive for over 43 d at 10 °C and for periods of 5–20 min at 40 °C. Across all experimental procedures, A. antarcticus possessed a somewhat greater level of heat tolerance than C. antarcticus. Water loss during short duration exposures did not differ between the two species at 30, 35 and 40 °C, suggesting that the greater tolerance of A. antarcticus over this timescale was not due to higher desiccation resistance. Physiological plasticity was investigated by testing for Rapid Heat Hardening (RHH) and long-term acclimation. RHH was observed to a small degree in both species at a warming rate of 0.5 °C min⁻¹, and also 0.2 °C min⁻¹ in A. antarcticus alone. Longer-term acclimation (1 week at 10 °C) did not enhance the heat tolerance of either species. Even with this limited physiological plasticity, the results of this study indicate that C. antarcticus and A. antarcticus have capacity in their heat tolerance to cope with current and future environmental extremes of high temperature.     

Prey selection by the common dolphin: Fulfilling high energy requirements with high quality food

Which characteristics define the prey species constituting the diet of a given predator? Answering this question would help predict a predator's diet and improve our understanding of how an ecosystem functions. The aim of this study was to test if the diet of common dolphins, Delphinus delphis, in the oceanic Bay of Biscay reflected prey availability or a selection shaped by prey energy densities (ED). To do this, the community of potential prey species, described both in terms of relative abundance and energy densities, was compared to the common dolphin diet in this area. This analysis of a predator's diet and its prey field revealed that the common dolphin selected its diet on the basis of prey energy densities (significant values of Chesson's index for ED > 5 kJ g^− 1). High-energy prey were positively selected in the diet [e.g. Notoscopelus kroeyeri, ED = 7.9 kJ g^− 1, 9% of relative abundance in the environment (%Ne); 62% of relative abundance in the diet (%Nd)] and low-energy prey disregarded (Xenodermichthys copei, ED = 2.1 kJ g⁻¹, 20%Ne, 0%Nd). These results supported the hypothesis that common dolphins selected high energy density prey species to meet their energetically expensive life style and disregard prey organisms of poor energy content even when abundant in the environment.     

Effects of heat acclimatisation on work tolerance and thermoregulation in trained tropical natives

This study aimed to investigate the effects of heat acclimatisation on thermoregulatory responses and work tolerance in trained individuals residing in the tropics. Eighteen male trained soldiers, who are native to a warm and humid climate, performed a total of four heat stress tests donning the Skeletal Battle Order (SBO, 20.5 kg) and Full Battle Order (FBO, 24.7 kg) before (PRE) and after (POST) a 10-day heat acclimatisation programme. The trials were conducted in an environmental chamber (dry bulb temperature: 32 °C, relative humidity: 70%, solar radiation: 400 W/m²). Excluding the data sets of which participants fully completed the heat stress tests (210 min) before and after heat acclimatisation, work tolerance was improved from 173±30 to 201±18 min (∼21%, p<0.05, n=9) following heat acclimatisation. Following heat acclimatisation, chest skin temperature during exercise was lowered in SBO (PRE=36.7±0.3 vs. POST=36.5±0.3 °C, p<0.01) and FBO (PRE=36.8±0.4 vs. POST=36.6±0.3 °C, p<0.01). Ratings of perceived exertion were decreased with SBO and FBO (PRE=11±2; POST=10±2; p<0.05) after heat acclimatisation. Heat acclimatisation had no effects on baseline body core temperature, heart rate and sweat rate across trials (p>0.05). A heat acclimatisation programme improves work tolerance with minimal effects on thermoregulation in trained tropical natives.     

Evaluation of the accessible inclusion sites in copolymer materials containing β-cyclodextrin

The accessible inclusion sites of insoluble copolymers containing β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) were studied in aqueous solutions by measuring the absorbance changes (decolourization) of phenolphthalein (phth) at pH 10.5. The various copolymers were reacted at different β-CD:crosslinker mole ratios with five individual types of crosslinker agents (epichlorohydrin (EP), sebacoyl chloride (SCL), terephthaloyl chloride (TCL), glutaraldehyde (GLU), and poly(acrylic) acid (PAA), respectively). The decolourization provided estimates of the 1:1 binding constants (K₁) for the β-CD monomer/phth complex. Comparable values of K₁ were measured for copolymer/phth complexes with highly accessible β-CD inclusion sites as compared with the 1:1 β-CD/phth complex. The surface accessibility of the β-CD inclusion binding sites for the polymers ranged from ∼10 to 72%. The observed variability of the inclusion sites was attributed to: (i) steric effects in the annular hydroxyl region of β-CD, (ii) the degree of crosslinking of the copolymer and (iii) the accessibility of the micropore sites within the copolymers. The Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) and site occupancy (θ) of phth adsorbed to the copolymer materials was estimated independently using the Sips isotherm model. The ΔG° values ranged between −27.6 and −30.9 kJ mol⁻¹ for the copolymers and are in close agreement with the value for the 1:1 β-CD/phth complexes (ΔG° = −27 kJ mol⁻¹) in aqueous solution.     

Diurnal pollen tube growth rate is slowed by high temperature in field-grown Gossypium hirsutum pistils

For Gossypium hirsutum pollination, germination, and pollen tube growth must occur in a highly concerted fashion on the day of flowering for fertilization to occur. Because reproductive success could be influenced by the photosynthetic activity of major source leaves, we hypothesized that increased temperatures under field conditions would limit fertilization by inhibiting diurnal pollen tube growth through the style and decreasing subtending leaf photosynthesis. To address this hypothesis, G. hirsutum seeds were sown on different dates to obtain flowers exposed to contrasting ambient temperatures while at the same developmental stage (node 8 above the cotyledons). Collection and measurement were conducted at 06:00, 09:00, 12:00, 15:00, and 18:00 h on August 4 (34.6 °C maximum air temperature) and 14, 2009 (29.9 °C maximum air temperature). Microclimate measurements included photosynthetically active radiation, relative humidity, and air temperature. Pistil measurements included pistil surface temperature, pollen germination, pollen tube growth through the style, fertilization efficiency, fertilized ovule number, and total number of ovules per ovary. Subtending leaf measurements included leaf temperature, photosynthesis, and stomatal conductance. Under high temperatures the first measurable pollen tube growth through the style was observed earlier in the day (12:00 h) than under cooler conditions (15:00 h). Also, high temperature resulted in slower pollen tube growth through the style (2.05 mm h⁻¹) relative to cooler conditions (3.35 mm h⁻¹), but there were no differences in fertilization efficiency, number of fertilized ovules, or ovule number. There was no effect of sampling date on diurnal photosynthetic patterns, where the maximum photosynthetic rate was observed at 12:00 h on both dates. It is concluded that, of the measured physiological and reproductive processes, pollen tube growth rate showed the greatest sensitivity to high temperature under field conditions.