Dietary Regimens Modify Early Onset of Obesity in Mice Haploinsufficient for Rai1

Smith-Magenis syndrome is a complex genomic disorder in which a majority of individuals are obese by adolescence. While an interstitial deletion of chromosome 17p11.2 is the leading cause, mutation or deletion of the RAI1 gene alone results in most features of the disorder. Previous studies have shown that heterozygous knockout of Rai1 results in an obese phenotype in mice and that Smith-Magenis syndrome mouse models have a significantly reduced fecundity and an altered transmission pattern of the mutant Rai1 allele, complicating large, extended studies in these models. In this study, we show that breeding C57Bl/6J Rai1^+/− mice with FVB/NJ to create F1 Rai1^+/− offspring in a mixed genetic background ameliorates both fecundity and Rai1 allele transmission phenotypes. These findings suggest that the mixed background provides a more robust platform for breeding and larger phenotypic studies. We also characterized the effect of dietary intake on Rai1^+/− mouse growth during adolescent and early adulthood developmental stages. Animals fed a high carbohydrate or a high fat diet gained weight at a significantly faster rate than their wild type littermates. Both high fat and high carbohydrate fed Rai1^+/− mice also had an increase in body fat and altered fat distribution patterns. Interestingly, Rai1^+/− mice fed different diets did not display altered fasting blood glucose levels. These results suggest that dietary regimens are extremely important for individuals with Smith- Magenis syndrome and that food high in fat and carbohydrates may exacerbate obesity outcomes.     

Acid Sphingomyelinase Gene Knockout Ameliorates Hyperhomocysteinemic Glomerular Injury in Mice Lacking Cystathionine-β-Synthase

Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) has been implicated in the development of hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys)-induced glomerular oxidative stress and injury. However, it remains unknown whether genetically engineering of ASM gene produces beneficial or detrimental action on hHcys-induced glomerular injury. The present study generated and characterized the mice lacking cystathionine β-synthase (Cbs) and Asm mouse gene by cross breeding Cbs^+/− and Asm^+/− mice. Given that the homozygotes of Cbs^−/−/Asm^−/− mice could not survive for 3 weeks. Cbs^+/−/Asm^+/+, Cbs^+/−/Asm^+/− and Cbs^+/−/Asm^−/− as well as their Cbs wild type littermates were used to study the role of Asm^−/− under a background of Cbs^+/− with hHcys. HPLC analysis revealed that plasma Hcys level was significantly elevated in Cbs heterozygous (Cbs^+/−) mice with different copies of Asm gene compared to Cbs^+/+ mice with different Asm gene copies. Cbs^+/−/Asm^+/+ mice had significantly increased renal Asm activity, ceramide production and O₂.⁻ level compared to Cbs^+/+/Asm^+/+, while Cbs^+/−/Asm^−/− mice showed significantly reduced renal Asm activity, ceramide production and O₂.⁻ level due to increased plasma Hcys levels. Confocal microscopy demonstrated that colocalization of podocin with ceramide was much lower in Cbs^+/−/Asm^−/− mice compared to Cbs^+/−/Asm^+/+ mice, which was accompanied by a reduced glomerular damage index, albuminuria and proteinuria in Cbs^+/−/Asm^−/− mice. Immunofluorescent analyses of the podocin, nephrin and desmin expression also illustrated less podocyte damages in the glomeruli from Cbs^+/−/Asm^−/− mice compared to Cbs^+/−/Asm^+/+ mice. In in vitro studies of podocytes, hHcys-enhanced O₂.⁻ production, desmin expression, and ceramide production as well as decreases in VEGF level and podocin expression in podocytes were substantially attenuated by prior treatment with amitriptyline, an Asm inhibitor. In conclusion, Asm gene knockout or corresponding enzyme inhibition protects the podocytes and glomeruli from hHcys-induced oxidative stress and injury.     

Generation and Characterization of a Mouse Model Harboring the Exon-3 Deletion in the Cardiac Ryanodine Receptor

A large genomic deletion in human cardiac ryanodine receptor (RYR2) gene has been detected in a number of unrelated families with various clinical phenotypes, including catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT). This genomic deletion results in an in-frame deletion of exon-3 (Ex3-del). To understand the underlying disease mechanism of the RyR2 Ex3-del mutation, we generated a mouse model in which the RyR2 exon-3 sequence plus 15-bp intron sequences flanking exon-3 were deleted. Heterozygous Ex3-del mice (Ex3-del^+/−) survived, but no homozygous Ex3-del mice were born. Unexpectedly, the Ex3-del^+/− mice are not susceptible to CPVT. Ex3-del^+/− cardiomyocytes exhibited similar amplitude but altered dynamics of depolarization-induced Ca²⁺ transients compared to wild type (WT) cells. Immunoblotting analysis revealed markedly reduced expression of RyR2 protein in the Ex3-del^+/− mutant heart, indicating that Ex3-del has a major impact on RyR2 protein expression in mice. Cardiac specific, conditional knockout of the WT RyR2 allele in Ex3-del^+/− mice led to bradycardia and death. Thus, the absence of CPVT and other phenotypes in Ex3-del^+/− mice may be attributable to the predominant expression of the WT RyR2 allele as a result of the markedly reduced expression of the Ex3-del mutant allele. The effect of Ex3-del on RyR2 protein expression is discussed in relation to the phenotypic variability in individuals with the RyR2 exon-3 deletion.     

A mouse model of inherited choline kinase β-deficiency presents with specific cardiac abnormalities and a predisposition to arrhythmia

The CHKB gene encodes choline kinase β, which catalyzes the first step in the biosynthetic pathway for the major phospholipid phosphatidylcholine. Homozygous loss-of-function variants in human CHKB are associated with a congenital muscular dystrophy. Dilated cardiomyopathy is present in some CHKB patients and can cause heart failure and death. Mechanisms underlying a cardiac phenotype due to decreased CHKB levels are not well characterized. We determined that there is cardiac hypertrophy in Chkb^−/− mice along with a decrease in left ventricle size, internal diameter, and stroke volume compared with wildtype and Chkb^+/− mice. Unlike wildtype mice, 60% of the Chkb^+/− and all Chkb^−/− mice tested displayed arrhythmic events when challenged with isoproterenol. Lipidomic analysis revealed that the major change in lipid level in Chkb^+/− and Chkb^−/− hearts was an increase in the arrhythmogenic lipid acylcarnitine. An increase in acylcarnitine level is also associated with a defect in the ability of mitochondria to use fatty acids for energy and we observed that mitochondria from Chkb^−/− hearts had abnormal cristae and inefficient electron transport chain activity. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a hormone produced by the heart that protects against the development of heart failure including ventricular conduction defects. We determined that there was a decrease in expression of ANP, its receptor NPRA, as well as ventricular conduction system markers in Chkb^+/− and Chkb^−/− mice.     

Hidden Disease Susceptibility and Sexual Dimorphism in the Heterozygous Knockout of Cyp51 from Cholesterol Synthesis

We examined the genotype-phenotype interactions of Cyp51^+/− mice carrying one functional allele of lanosterol 14α-demethylase from cholesterol biosynthesis. No distinct developmental or morphological abnormalities were observed by routine visual inspection of Cyp51^+/− and Cyp51^+/+ mice and fertility was similar. We further collected a large data-set from female and male Cyp51^+/− mice and controls fed for 16 weeks with three diets and applied linear regression modeling. We used 3 predictor variables (genotype, sex, diet), and 39 response variables corresponding to the organ characteristics (7), plasma parameters (7), and hepatic gene expression (25). We observed significant differences between Cyp51^+/− and wild-type mice in organ characteristics and blood lipid profile. Hepatomegaly was observed in Cyp51^+/− males, together with elevated total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Cyp51^+/− females fed high-fat, high-cholesterol diet were leaner and had elevated plasma corticosterone compared to controls. We observed elevated hepatocyte apoptosis, mitosis and lipid infiltration in heterozygous knockouts of both sexes. The Cyp51^+/− females had a modified lipid storage homeostasis protecting them from weight-gain when fed high-fat high-cholesterol diet. Malfunction of one Cyp51 allele therefore initiates disease pathways towards cholesterol-linked liver pathologies and sex-dependent response to dietary challenge.     

Complement factor H deficiency combined with smoking promotes retinal degeneration in a novel mouse model

Age-related macular degeneration is the leading cause of blindness in the elderly. The Y402H polymorphism in complement factor H promotes disease-like pathogenesis, and a Cfh^+/− murine model can replicate this phenotype, but only after two years. We reasoned that by combining CFH deficiency with cigarette smoke exposure, we might be able to accelerate disease progression to facilitate preclinical research in this disease. Wild-type and Cfh^+/− mice were exposed to nose-only cigarette smoke for three months. Retinal tissue morphology and visual function were evaluated by optical coherence tomography, fundus photography and autofluorescence, and electroretinogram. Retinal pigment epithelial cell phenotype and ultrastructure were evaluated by immunofluorescence staining and transmission electron microscopy. Cfh^+/− smoking mice showed a dome-like protruding lesion at the ellipsoid zone (drusen-like deposition), many retinal hyper-autofluorescence spots, and a marked decrease in A- and B-wave amplitudes. Compared with non-smoking mice, wild-type and Cfh^+/− smoking mice showed sub-retinal pigment epithelium complement protein 3 deposition, activation of microglia, metabolic waste accumulation, and impairment of tight junctions. Microglia cells migrated into the photoreceptor outer segment layer in Cfh^+/− smoking mice showed increased activation. Our results suggest that exposing Cfh^+/− mice to smoking leads to earlier onset of age-related macular degeneration than in other animal models, which may facilitate preclinical research into the pathophysiology and treatment of this disease.     

The Amount of Keratins Matters for Stress Protection of the Colonic Epithelium

Keratins (K) are important for epithelial stress protection as evidenced by keratin mutations predisposing to human liver diseases and possibly inflammatory bowel diseases. A role for K8 in the colon is supported by the ulcerative colitis-phenotype with epithelial hyperproliferation and abnormal ion transport in K8-knockout (K8^−/−) mice. The heterozygote knockout (K8^+/−) colon appears normal but displays a partial ion transport-defect. Characterizing the colonic phenotype we show that K8^+/− colon expresses ~50% less keratins compared to K8 wild type (K8^+/+) but de novo K7 expression is observed in the top-most cells of the K8^+/− and K8^−/− crypts. The K8^+/− colonic crypts are significantly longer due to increased epithelial hyperproliferation, but display no defects in apoptosis or inflammation in contrast to K8^−/−. When exposed to colitis using the dextran sulphate sodium-model, K8^+/− mice showed higher disease sensitivity and delayed recovery compared to K8^+/+ littermates. Therefore, the K8^+/− mild colonic phenotype correlates with decreased keratin levels and increased sensitivity to experimental colitis, suggesting that a sufficient amount of keratin is needed for efficient stress protection in the colonic epithelia.     

Sodium-Glucose Transporter-2 (SGLT2; SLC5A2) Enhances Cellular Uptake of Aminoglycosides

Aminoglycoside antibiotics, like gentamicin, continue to be clinically essential worldwide to treat life-threatening bacterial infections. Yet, the ototoxic and nephrotoxic side-effects of these drugs remain serious complications. A major site of gentamicin uptake and toxicity resides within kidney proximal tubules that also heavily express electrogenic sodium-glucose transporter-2 (SGLT2; SLC5A2) in vivo. We hypothesized that SGLT2 traffics gentamicin, and promotes cellular toxicity. We confirmed in vitro expression of SGLT2 in proximal tubule-derived KPT2 cells, and absence in distal tubule-derived KDT3 cells. D-glucose competitively decreased the uptake of 2-(N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-2-deoxyglucose (2-NBDG), a fluorescent analog of glucose, and fluorescently-tagged gentamicin (GTTR) by KPT2 cells. Phlorizin, an SGLT2 antagonist, strongly inhibited uptake of 2-NBDG and GTTR by KPT2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. GTTR uptake was elevated in KDT3 cells transfected with SGLT2 (compared to controls); and this enhanced uptake was attenuated by phlorizin. Knock-down of SGLT2 expression by siRNA reduced gentamicin-induced cytotoxicity. In vivo, SGLT2 was robustly expressed in kidney proximal tubule cells of heterozygous, but not null, mice. Phlorizin decreased GTTR uptake by kidney proximal tubule cells in Sglt2^+/− mice, but not in Sglt2^−/− mice. However, serum GTTR levels were elevated in Sglt2^−/− mice compared to Sglt2^+/− mice, and in phlorizin-treated Sglt2^+/− mice compared to vehicle-treated Sglt2^+/− mice. Loss of SGLT2 function by antagonism or by gene deletion did not affect gentamicin cochlear loading or auditory function. Phlorizin did not protect wild-type mice from kanamycin-induced ototoxicity. We conclude that SGLT2 can traffic gentamicin and contribute to gentamicin-induced cytotoxicity.     

Impaired Bone Formation in Pdia3 Deficient Mice

1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ [1α,25(OH)₂D₃] is crucial for normal skeletal development and bone homeostasis. Protein disulfide isomerase family A, member 3 (PDIA3) mediates 1α,25(OH)₂D₃ initiated-rapid membrane signaling in several cell types. To understand its role in regulating skeletal development, we generated Pdia3-deficient mice and examined the physiologic consequence of Pdia3-disruption in embryos and Pdia3 ^+/− heterozygotes at different ages. No mice homozygous for the Pdia3-deletion were found at birth nor were there embryos after E12.5, indicating that targeted disruption of the Pdia3 gene resulted in early embryonic lethality. Pdia3-deficiency also resulted in skeletal manifestations as revealed by µCT analysis of the tibias. In comparison to wild type mice, Pdia3 heterozygous mice displayed expanded growth plates associated with decreased tether formation. Histomorphometry also showed that the hypertrophic zone in Pdia3 ^+/− mice was more cellular than seen in wild type growth plates. Metaphyseal trabecular bone in Pdia3 ^+/− mice exhibited an age-dependent phenotype with lower BV/TV and trabecular numbers, which was most pronounced at 15 weeks of age. Bone marrow cells from Pdia3 ^+/− mice exhibited impaired osteoblastic differentiation, based on reduced expression of osteoblast markers and mineral deposition compared to cells from wild type animals. Collectively, our findings provide in vivo evidence that PDIA3 is essential for normal skeletal development. The fact that the Pdia3 ^+/− heterozygous mice share a similar growth plate and bone phenotype to nVdr knockout mice, suggests that PDIA3-mediated rapid membrane signaling might be an alternative mechanism responsible for 1α,25(OH)₂D₃’s actions in regulating skeletal development.     

Genetic Deficiency of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3β Corrects Diabetes in Mouse Models of Insulin Resistance

Despite treatment with agents that enhance β-cell function and insulin action, reduction in β-cell mass is relentless in patients with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Insulin resistance is characterized by impaired signaling through the insulin/insulin receptor/insulin receptor substrate/PI-3K/Akt pathway, leading to elevation of negatively regulated substrates such as glycogen synthase kinase-3β (Gsk-3β). When elevated, this enzyme has antiproliferative and proapoptotic properties. In these studies, we designed experiments to determine the contribution of Gsk-3β to regulation of β-cell mass in two mouse models of insulin resistance. Mice lacking one allele of the insulin receptor (Ir^+/−) exhibit insulin resistance and a doubling of β-cell mass. Crossing these mice with those having haploinsufficiency for Gsk-3β (Gsk-3β^+/−) reduced insulin resistance by augmenting whole-body glucose disposal, and significantly reduced β-cell mass. In the second model, mice missing two alleles of the insulin receptor substrate 2 (Irs2^−/−), like the Ir^+/− mice, are insulin resistant, but develop profound β-cell loss, resulting in early diabetes. We found that islets from these mice had a 4-fold elevation of Gsk-3β activity associated with a marked reduction of β-cell proliferation and increased apoptosis. Irs2^−/− mice crossed with Gsk-3β^+/− mice preserved β-cell mass by reversing the negative effects on proliferation and apoptosis, preventing onset of diabetes. Previous studies had shown that islets of Irs2^−/− mice had increased cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27^kip1 that was limiting for β-cell replication, and reduced Pdx1 levels associated with increased cell death. Preservation of β-cell mass in Gsk-3β^+/−Irs2^−/− mice was accompanied by suppressed p27^kip1 levels and increased Pdx1 levels. To separate peripheral versus β-cell–specific effects of reduction of Gsk3β activity on preservation of β-cell mass, mice homozygous for a floxed Gsk-3β allele (Gsk-3^F/F) were then crossed with rat insulin promoter-Cre (RIP-Cre) mice to produce β-cell–specific knockout of Gsk-3β (βGsk-3β^−/−). Like Gsk-3β^+/− mice, βGsk-3β^−/− mice also prevented the diabetes of the Irs2^−/− mice. The results of these studies now define a new, negatively regulated substrate of the insulin signaling pathway specifically within β-cells that when elevated, can impair replication and increase apoptosis, resulting in loss of β-cells and diabetes. These results thus form the rationale for developing agents to inhibit this enzyme in obese insulin-resistant individuals to preserve β-cells and prevent diabetes onset.     

miR-133a Regulates Adipocyte Browning In Vivo

Prdm16 determines the bidirectional fate switch of skeletal muscle/brown adipose tissue (BAT) and regulates the thermogenic gene program of subcutaneous white adipose tissue (SAT) in mice. Here we show that miR-133a, a microRNA that is expressed in both BAT and SATs, directly targets the 3′ UTR of Prdm16. The expression of miR-133a dramatically decreases along the commitment and differentiation of brown preadipocytes, accompanied by the upregulation of Prdm16. Overexpression of miR-133a in BAT and SAT cells significantly inhibits, and conversely inhibition of miR-133a upregulates, Prdm16 and brown adipogenesis. More importantly, double knockout of miR-133a1 and miR-133a2 in mice leads to elevations of the brown and thermogenic gene programs in SAT. Even 75% deletion of miR-133a (a1^−/−a2^+/−) genes results in browning of SAT, manifested by the appearance of numerous multilocular UCP1-expressing adipocytes within SAT. Additionally, compared to wildtype mice, miR-133a1^−/−a2^+/− mice exhibit increased insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, and activate the thermogenic gene program more robustly upon cold exposure. These results together elucidate a crucial role of miR-133a in the regulation of adipocyte browning in vivo.     

Heterozygosity for Fibrinogen Results in Efficient Resolution of Kidney Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

Fibrinogen (Fg) has been recognized to play a central role in coagulation, inflammation and tissue regeneration. Several studies have used Fg deficient mice (Fg^−/−) in comparison with heterozygous mice (Fg^+/−) to point the proinflammatory role of Fg in diverse pathological conditions and disease states. Although Fg^+/− mice are considered ‘normal’, plasma Fg is reduced to ∼75% of the normal circulating levels present in wild type mice (Fg^+/+). We report that this reduction in Fg protein production in the Fg^+/− mice is enough to protect them from kidney ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) as assessed by tubular injury, kidney dysfunction, necrosis, apoptosis and inflammatory immune cell infiltration. Mechanistically, we observed binding of Fg to ICAM-1 in kidney tissues of Fg^+/+ mice at 24 h following IRI as compared to a complete absence of binding observed in the Fg^+/− and Fg^−/− mice. Raf-1 and ERK were highly activated as evident by significantly higher phosphorylation in the Fg^+/+ kidneys at 24 h following IRI as compared to Fg^+/− and Fg^−/− mice kidneys. On the other hand Cyclin D1 and pRb, indicating higher cell proliferation, were significantly increased in the Fg^+/− and Fg^−/− as compared to Fg^+/+ kidneys. These data suggest that Fg heterozygosity allows maintenance of a critical balance of Fg that enables regression of initial injury and promotes faster resolution of kidney damage.     

An Enhanced Immune Response of Mclk1 +/? Mutant Mice Is Associated with Partial Protection from Fibrosis,Cancer and the Development of Biomarkers of Aging

The immune response is essential for survival by destroying microorganisms and pre-cancerous cells. However, inflammation, one aspect of this response, can result in short- and long-term deleterious side-effects. Mclk1 ^+/− mutant mice can be long-lived despite displaying a hair-trigger inflammatory response and chronically activated macrophages as a result of high mitochondrial ROS generation. Here we ask whether this phenotype is beneficial or simply tolerated. We used models of infection by Salmonella serovars and found that Mclk1 ^+/− mutants mount a stronger immune response, control bacterial proliferation better, and are resistant to cell and tissue damage resulting from the response, including fibrosis and types of oxidative damage that are considered to be biomarkers of aging. Moreover, these same types of tissue damage were found to be low in untreated 23 months-old mutants. We also examined the initiation of tumour growth after transplantation of mouse LLC1 carcinoma cells into Mclk1 ^+/− mutants, as well as during spontaneous tumorigenesis in Mclk1 ^+/− Trp53 ^+/− double mutants. Tumour latency was increased by the Mclk1 ^+/− genotype in both models. Furthermore, we used the transplantation model to show that splenic CD8+ T lymphocytes from Mclk1 ^+/− graft recipients show enhanced cytotoxicity against LLC1 cells in vitro. Mclk1 ^+/− mutants thus display an association of an enhanced immune response with partial protection from age-dependent processes and from pathologies similar to those that are found with increased frequency during the aging process. This suggests that the immune phenotype of these mutants might contribute to their longevity. We discuss how these findings suggest a broader view of how the immune response might impact the aging process.     

Hypoxia-Induced Endothelial Progenitor Cell Function Is Blunted in Angiotensinogen Knockout Mice

Angiotensinogen (AGT), the precursor of angiotensin I, is known to be involved in tumor angiogenesis and associated with the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. This study was undertaken to determine the role played by AGT in endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) in tumor progression and metastasis. It was found that the number of EPC colonies formed by AGT heterozygous knockout (AGT^+/−) cells was less than that formed by wild-type (WT) cells, and that the migration and tube formation abilities of AGT^+/− EPCs were significantly lower than those of WT EPCs. In addition, the gene expressions of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), Flk1, angiopoietin (Ang)-1, Ang-2, Tie-2, stromal derived factor (SDF)-1, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), and of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) were suppressed in AGT^+/− EPCs. Furthermore, the expressions of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α and -2α were downregulated in AGT^+/− early EPCs under hypoxic conditions, suggesting a blunting of response to hypoxia. Moreover, the activation of Akt/eNOS signaling pathways induced by VEGF, epithelial growth factor (EGF), or SDF-1α were suppressed in AGT^+/− EPCs. In AGT^+/− mice, the incorporation of EPCs into the tumor vasculature was significantly reduced, and lung tumor growth and melanoma metastasis were attenuated. In conclusion, AGT is required for hypoxia-induced vasculogenesis.     

Long Term Expression of Drosophila melanogaster Nucleoside Kinase in Thymidine Kinase 2-deficient Mice with No Lethal Effects Caused by Nucleotide Pool Imbalances

Mitochondrial DNA depletion caused by thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) deficiency can be compensated by a nucleoside kinase from Drosophila melanogaster (Dm-dNK) in mice. We show that transgene expression of Dm-dNK in Tk2 knock-out (Tk2^−/−) mice extended the life span of Tk2^−/− mice from 3 weeks to at least 20 months. The Dm-dNK^+/−Tk2^−/− mice maintained normal mitochondrial DNA levels throughout the observation time. A significant difference in total body weight due to the reduction of subcutaneous and visceral fat in the Dm-dNK^+/−Tk2^−/− mice was the only visible difference compared with control mice. This indicates an effect on fat metabolism mediated through residual Tk2 deficiency because Dm-dNK expression was low in both liver and fat tissues. Dm-dNK expression led to increased dNTP pools and an increase in the catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides but these alterations did not apparently affect the mice during the 20 months of observation. In conclusion, Dm-dNK expression in the cell nucleus expanded the total dNTP pools to levels required for efficient mitochondrial DNA synthesis, thereby compensated the Tk2 deficiency, during a normal life span of the mice. The Dm-dNK^+/− mouse serves as a model for nucleoside gene or enzyme substitutions, nucleotide imbalances, and dNTP alterations in different tissues.     

A high‐fat diet exacerbates the Alzheimer's disease pathology in the hippocampus of the App NL−F/NL−F knock‐in mouse model

Insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus are major risk factors for Alzheimer''s disease (AD), and studies with transgenic mouse models of AD have provided supportive evidence with some controversies. To overcome potential artifacts derived from transgenes, we used a knock‐in mouse model, App^{NL−F/NL−F} , which accumulates Aβ plaques from 6 months of age and shows mild cognitive impairment at 18 months of age, without the overproduction of APP. In the present study, 6‐month‐old male App^{NL−F/NL−F} and wild‐type mice were fed a regular or high‐fat diet (HFD) for 12 months. HFD treatment caused obesity and impaired glucose tolerance (i.e., T2DM conditions) in both wild‐type and App^{NL−F/NL−F} mice, but only the latter animals exhibited an impaired cognitive function accompanied by marked increases in both Aβ deposition and microgliosis as well as insulin resistance in the hippocampus. Furthermore, HFD‐fed App^{NL−F/NL−F} mice exhibited a significant decrease in volume of the granule cell layer in the dentate gyrus and an increased accumulation of 8‐oxoguanine, an oxidized guanine base, in the nuclei of granule cells. Gene expression profiling by microarrays revealed that the populations of the cell types in hippocampus were not significantly different between the two mouse lines, regardless of the diet. In addition, HFD treatment decreased the expression of the Aβ binding protein transthyretin (TTR) in App^{NL−F/NL−F} mice, suggesting that the depletion of TTR underlies the increased Aβ deposition in the hippocampus of HFD‐fed App^{NL−F/NL−F} mice.