取食生境对白鹤越冬行为的影响

为探究人工生境与自然生境下白鹤Grus leucogeranus的行为差异及其可能对白鹤造成的影响,2021年1—2月,采用焦点动物取样法对鄱阳湖2个人工生境（藕塘、稻田）和1个自然生境（常湖池）的越冬白鹤行为进行了观察。结果表明,越冬期白鹤在不同生境下均以觅食行为为主,在稻田中比例最高（94.6%）,觅食频次显著高于藕塘（P<0.001）;稻田中的警戒行为频次显著高于藕塘和常湖池（P<0.001;P=0.002）,而藕塘和常湖池中的警戒行为频次无显著差异。白鹤在不同生境下食物的种类、营养成分、觅食方式均会影响白鹤越冬期行为及时间分配。本研究为加强越冬白鹤人工生境的保护与管理提供指导和依据。     

鄱阳湖四种水鸟的栖息地利用与水深和食物的关系

为了了解水深和食物资源对水鸟栖息地利用的影响,2012 ~ 2013年越冬期,采用样方法,对鄱阳湖沙湖的白鹤 (Grus leucogeranus)、小天鹅 (Cygnus columbianus)、东方白鹳 (Ciconia boyciana) 和白琵鹭 (Platalea leucorodia) 4种水鸟的数量、觅食地和休息地的水深以及主要食物——沉水植物冬芽的密度和生物量进行了调查。每个样方为150 m? 150 m的栅格,全湖共设置152个样方。结果显示,10月份沉水植物冬芽的平均水深为 (124.2 ± 12.0) cm。4种水鸟觅食地的水深均显著高于其休息地的水深 (白鹤：Z = 11.96, 小天鹅：Z = 4.69, 东方白鹳：Z = 14.44, 白琵鹭：Z = 29.33, 所有P < 0.01);对于2种食冬芽的水鸟,白鹤觅食地的水深、冬芽生物量、取食深度以及休息地水深均显著低于小天鹅 (觅食地水深: Z = 8.56, 冬芽生物量: Z = 2.93, 取食深度: Z = 14.69, 休息地水深: Z = 4.34, 所有P < 0.05),但两者觅食地的冬芽密度差异不显著 (Z = 0.6, P = 0.55);对于2种食鱼性水鸟,东方白鹳觅食地水深、取食深度和休息地水深均显著大于白琵鹭 (觅食地水深: Z = 10.60; 取食深度: Z = 9.35; 休息地水深: Z = 8.47, 所有P < 0.01)。回归分析表明,白鹤、东方白鹳、白琵鹭的觅食个体数量均与水深呈二次项关系,个体数量最大的觅食地水深分别为23.9 cm,33.0 cm和22.6 cm;白鹤、小天鹅的觅食个体数量均与冬芽生物量呈线性关系。3种涉禽均只能分布在一定的水深范围内,且同种食性的水鸟利用不同的水深从而减少在空间生态位的重叠。     

鄱阳湖滨藕塘生境中白鹤取食行为研究

2016年12月—2017年2月和2017年12月—2018年1月,采用焦点动物法对鄱阳湖滨藕塘生境中白鹤(Grus leucogeranus)的取食行为进行观察,共记录921只次成鹤和547只次幼鹤的取食行为。结果表明,白鹤栖息水深为(17.29±8.75)cm(n=1468),取食水深为(18.84±10.32)cm(n=600),单次取食持续时间为(3.10±1.69)s(n=600),取食频次为(12.24±3.89)次/min(n=1012),取食成功频次为(1.78±1.59)次/min(n=1468),取食成功率为(16.26±14.41)%(n=1012)。成鹤取食成功频次(SymbolcA@~2=70.797,df=1,P=0.000)和取食成功率(SymbolcA@~2=5.356,df=1,P=0.020)均显著高于幼鹤,表明成鹤取食能力较幼鹤强,成鹤可以获得更多的能量。成鹤除维持自身能量支出外,还需要花费较多的能量用于辅食和警戒行为。成幼鹤的取食频次和单次取食持续时间无显著差异,这与成幼鹤的体型大小、能量需求和体内氧气储存量类似有关,也与多数研究认为幼鹤觅食经验不足,觅食成功率低,需要靠多次取食来补偿能量的观点不同。成鹤取食水深极显著高于幼鹤(SymbolcA@~2=50.945,df=1,P0.0001),这可能与体型和取食经验有关。不同栖息水深下白鹤的取食成功率(SymbolcA@~2=15.297,df=4,P=0.004)和取食成功频次(SymbolcA@~2=23.155,df=4,P0.0001)均存在极显著差异。不同时段的取食频次、取食成功频次和取食成功率均无显著差异,这可能与藕塘生境中白鹤采取触觉取食有关。此外,白鹤昼间取食行为无明显节律性,因此昼间能量需求相似,取食参数没有显著差异。     

鄱阳湖越冬白鹤在农业用地的食物组成

白鹤(Grus leucogeranus)是IUCN极危物种,全球仅存3 500～4 000只,其中约98%的个体在鄱阳湖越冬。以前白鹤在鄱阳湖主要在浅水生境挖掘苦草(Vallisneria spp.)的冬芽为食。然而,近年来农业用地已成为白鹤的重要觅食地。目前对于白鹤在农业用地的食物组成尚不清楚。本研究采用粪便显微镜检法对2017年11月至2018年4月采集的70份白鹤粪便样品进行分析。结果表明,白鹤的食物来源于10科15种植物,其中,水稻(Oryza sativa)、莲藕(Nelumbo nucifera)和紫云英(Astragalus sinicus)为最主要的食物,这3种植物在检测到的食物中的相对密度分别为34.34%、22.99%和10.61%,而白鹤的传统食物苦草冬芽所占的比例极低(2.05%)。由此可见,白鹤的食物组成已经发生变化,农作物已成为白鹤的重要食物来源。白鹤在农业用地中觅食使该物种的保护面临一系列问题,尤其是高强度的人为干扰,对此,提出了相应的保护措施,希望为白鹤提供安全、稳定的觅食环境。     

年龄、集群、生境及天气对鄱阳湖白鹤越冬期日间行为模式的影响

于2012年1—3月和2012年12—2013年3月,采用瞬时扫描法研究了鄱阳湖国家级自然保护区越冬白鹤(Grusleucogeranus)的昼间时间分配模式和日活动节律,分析了年龄、集群大小、生境类型和天气对白鹤越冬行为的影响。结果表明,白鹤越冬期的主要行为有觅食、警戒、理羽、游走、休息和争斗。其中,觅食是鄱阳湖越冬白鹤主要行为,占其昼间活动时间的82.94%;警戒占11.94%,理羽占3.52%,游走占1.88%,休息占0.15%,争斗占0.02%。白鹤在越冬期间的觅食、游走、休息和争斗行为存在明显的昼间节律性,其中游走、觅食和争斗行为在每天的上午和下午各存在1个高峰,休息行为在中午出现一个高峰;警戒和理羽行为则没有显著的昼间节律变化。年龄、集群大小、天气和生境对白鹤的越冬行为具有显著的影响:幼鹤取食的时间显著多于成鹤,而警戒时间则显著的小于成鹤;与家庭群中的个体相比,集体群中的个体取食和争斗时间显著增加,警戒时间显著减少;在天气晴朗时,白鹤的警戒时间显著大于阴天的警戒时间,取食时间则显著少于阴天时白鹤的取食时间;白鹤在大风天气显著增加理羽行为;在有雾的天气会显著增加取食时间,减少警戒时间。在草洲和浅水两种生境中,白鹤的游走和理羽行为存在显著差异,而觅食和警戒行为没有显著的差异,这可能源于草洲和浅水生境相互毗邻,并且具有相同程度的人为干扰。GLM分析结果表明,年龄和集群大小、年龄和生境、集群大小和天气、集群大小和生境、天气和生境对白鹤昼间时间分配模式的影响存在显著交互效应。     

鄱阳湖越冬白鹤觅食地特征分析

2008年11月至2009年3月,采用样线法、样方法和因子分析法对鄱阳湖国家级自然保护区越冬白鹤(Grus leucogranus)觅食地特征进行了研究。结果表明,白鹤在保护区的分布具有时空动态性,主要受水位和食物的控制;白鹤对不同类型觅食地具有选择性(P0.05),对沉水植物型觅食地,即以苦草(Vallisneria natans)、黑藻(Hydrilla verticillata)、马来眼子菜(Potamogeton malaianus)为主的沉水植物型生境利用度最大;白鹤各型觅食地各因子的方差分析表明,植被因子具有极显著差异(P0.001),基底因子和掘食因子具有显著差异(P0.05);因子分析表明,觅食地选择以取食效率因子为主,其次是基底因子和食物丰富度因子。     

鄱阳湖围垦区藕塘越冬白鹤的时间分配与行为节律

2016年12月—2017年3月,采用瞬时扫描法研究了鄱阳湖围垦区藕塘生境中白鹤Grus leucogeranus越冬期的行为,共扫描2560次,23219只次,包括18031只次成鹤和5188只次幼鹤。结果表明,觅食(41.78%)、警戒(25.02%)、修整(15.00%)和休息(10.84%)是白鹤越冬期的主要行为。与自然生境相比,藕塘生境中白鹤主要采取多休息和修整的策略来节省能量支出。成鹤的觅食行为(35.29%)显著低于幼鹤(62.42%)(F_(1,12)=45.977,P0.01),警戒行为(28.66%)则显著高于幼鹤(10.26%)(F_(1,12)=38.975,P0.01)。家庭群成鹤觅食行为(43.96%)极显著高于非家庭群成鹤(27.04%)(F_(1,12)=60.169,P0.01)。家庭群成鹤需要喂食幼鹤,它们花费更多的时间觅食弥补能量的消耗。行为节律上,白鹤各时段觅食行为占总行为的比例均较高,11:00—11:59出现明显高峰,占总行为的48.64%。警戒行为无明显的低谷和高峰。成鹤在各时段的觅食行为比例均明显低于幼鹤,成鹤和幼鹤的觅食曲线变化趋势相似,即觅食比例的升高和降低比较同步。成鹤在各时段的警戒行为和修整行为比例均明显高于幼鹤,成幼鹤的休息行为比例在各时段差别不大,均在14:00—14:59有个明显的高峰。家庭群成鹤的觅食行为比例几乎在各时段均明显高于非家庭群,家庭群成鹤的修整行为和休息行为在大部分时段均低于非家庭群成鹤。因此家庭群成鹤采取多取食,少休息和修整的策略提高自身的适合度,同时保证对后代的抚育。     

鄱阳湖藕田越冬期小天鹅和鸿雁能量支出与取食行为比较

2016年12月—2017年2月和2017年12月—2018年3月,采用瞬时扫描法和焦点动物法,对鄱阳湖畔藕田生境中小天鹅(Cygnus columbianus)和鸿雁(Anser cygnoides)越冬期昼间行为的能量支出和取食行为进行观察。结果表明:小天鹅和鸿雁主要行为是休息(小天鹅:36.01%;鸿雁:28.02%)、取食(32.71%; 17.44%)和运动(17.26%; 30.61%);小天鹅和鸿雁昼间能量支出较多的行为也是取食(小天鹅:354. 1 kJ·d-1;鸿雁:144. 88kJ·d-1)、休息(275.22 kJ·d-1; 164.35 k J·d-1)和运动(219.79 kJ·d-1; 299.22 kJ·d-1);小天鹅在藕田中取食行为的能量支出和总能量支出均显著高于鸿雁;小天鹅和鸿雁一天中的能量支出无显著差异;藕田生境中小天鹅主要采取表面取食和头颈浸入水体的取食方式,鸿雁则主要采取表面取食和挖掘食物,这与藕田生境中水深、食物组成以及自身形态有关;小天鹅和鸿雁通过不同的取食方式和取食水深,减少种间竞争。     

棕胸竹鸡觅食行为的观察

对笼养条件下棕胸竹鸡（Bambusicola fytchii fytchii）每日的觅食节律的时间、频次、求偶取食行为和社群等级之间的关系进行了观察。结果表明：影响棕胸竹鸡觅食行为的主要因素是一天中它在地面上活动、静栖、游走及饮水等项行为所占时间的长短。影响求偶取食行为的主要因素是它在地面上活动的总时间和理羽、攻击及其它的求偶活动所占的时间多少。社群等级对棕胸竹鸡的觅食行为有一定的影响,但不甚显著。     

鄱阳湖周边稻田对白鹤的承载力

鄱阳湖是世界重要的候鸟越冬地,承载了全球约98%的白鹤(Leucogeranus leucogeranus)。然而,近年来鄱阳湖沉水植被退化严重,白鹤的传统食物苦草(Vallisneria spp.)冬芽丰富度急剧减少。食物短缺导致白鹤的觅食生境由自然湿地的浅水生境转移至稻田、藕塘等人工生境,稻田在白鹤保护中发挥的作用日益突出。了解鄱阳湖周边稻田对白鹤的承载力可为白鹤的保护和管理提供科学依据。为此,调查了鄱阳湖周边稻田散落稻谷的生物量,测量了稻谷的营养成分,并利用遥感影像对鄱阳湖周边10 km范围内稻田的总面积进行估算,从而得出鄱阳湖周边稻田散落稻谷能提供的总能量。然后,计算稻田中以稻谷为主要食物的6种鸟类的日能量消耗,用以表示日能量摄入。最后,依据稻田能提供的总能量、鸟类的日能量摄入、鸟类的越冬时长、以及各种鸟类的数量占比,计算得出鄱阳湖周边稻田能承载的白鹤数量。结果表明,鄱阳湖周边稻田散落稻谷的生物量为6.494 g/m²,环鄱阳湖周边10 km范围内稻田的总面积为1984.46 km²,这些稻田能承载的鸟类总数量为140860只,其中能承载的白鹤数量为10775只,超过了全球白鹤的总数量(3500-4000只)。因此,鄱阳湖周边稻田能为白鹤等鸟类提供丰富的食物资源。     

Effects of snow cover on the social and foraging behavior of the great tit Parus major

In the Joetsu region of central Honshu, Japan, snow lies on the ground 2–3 m deep from January to February every year. To test the effects of snow cover on the social and foraging behaviors of the great tit (Parus major Linnaeus) in the region, the following parameters were compared between the pre-snowy period (November and December) and the snowy period (January and February) at the individual level: population size, monospecific flock size and the stability of its membership, home range size, attendance rate with mixed-species flocks, and foraging height. Great tits lived alone or in pairs, but often joined mixed-species flocks. Throughout the study period, individuals exhibited strong site fidelity, which resulted in a stable population size. Neither the size of a monospecific flock nor its membership was affected by snow cover. The home range expanded when birds joined mixed-species flocks during both periods. Birds more frequently joined mixed-species flocks during the snowy period, and the size of mixed-species flocks was significantly larger than during the pre-snowy period. During the snowy period, birds shifted their foraging position from the ground to the upper parts of trees. They also used the upper parts of trees when they joined mixed-species flocks. These results suggest that the intraspecific sociality of great tits is relatively insensitive to snow cover, but that the home range size and foraging positions are affected by joining mixed-species flocks, rather than by snow cover.     

白鹤幼鹤行为发育

2012年10月至2013年5月,采用焦点取样法对在吉林莫莫格国家级自然保护区内秋季和春季迁徙停歇的以及在江西鄱阳湖国家级自然保护区内越冬的白鹤(Grus leucogeranus)幼鹤行为进行了研究。结果表明,幼鹤取食行为比例从秋季迁徙时的23.0%增加到越冬晚期时的82.7%,但春季迁徙期减少为61.9%;幼鹤乞食行为比例从秋季迁徙时的58.2%减少至春季迁徙时的1.2%;幼鹤警戒行为比例从秋季迁徙时的1.0%增加至春季迁徙时的7.1%。幼鹤在春季迁徙期的理羽及静栖行为显著高于越冬期,这种行为的差异可能与食物的丰富度相关。环境因子中,风速对幼鹤静栖行为有显著影响,幼鹤取食及警戒行为与气温呈显著正相关。秋季迁徙及越冬晚期,幼鹤行为日节律在13:00—14:00时出现明显的取食低谷期,而春季迁徙期时则推后1小时。整个观察期间,幼鹤从雄鹤和雌鹤获得食物频次无显著差异,但不同时间段幼鹤从雄、雌成鹤处获得食物频次差异是显著的。研究从行为学的角度展示白鹤幼鹤的生长过程及不同性别成鹤对幼鹤生长的贡献。     

Mixed species flocking of tits (Parus spp.): a field experiment

Summary We tested two general models of flocking behaviour, namely the antipredation model and foraging efficiency model on mixed-species tit flocks (Parus spp.). After food addition the size of mixed-species flocks was significantly less than in the control samples. In the presence of extra food significantly more birds were observed either in monospecific flocks or solitary, than during the control observations. In the presence of a living predator the birds foraged in larger mixed-specifies flocks than during the control observations. In addition, the social behaviour of Great Spotted Woodpecker, Middle Spotted Woodpecker and Nuthatch shifted to mixed-specific flocking. The size of monospecific flocks was independent of both treatments. The density of birds increased significantly after food addition, while in the predator presence the birds tended to leave the forest. These results support the view that both the antipredation model and foraging efficiency model seem to be valid for mixed-species flocking. However, in the case of monospecific flocks, the territory maintenance could be the most important factor.     

鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物群落结构及功能预测分析

【目的】分析鄱阳湖越冬白鹤在人工生境中肠道微生物群落组成和代谢功能特征。【方法】利用16S rRNA基因高通量测序技术比较藕田和稻田2种不同人工生境鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物群落组成和重建未观察到的状态(phylogenetic investigation of communities by reconstruction of unobserved states, PICRUSt)进行功能预测。【结果】稻田白鹤肠道微生物α多样性(Ace、Chao1、Shannon和Simpson指数)高于藕田白鹤,但未达到显著水平(P>0.05)。基于Binary-Jaccard距离矩阵的β多样性分析发现2种人工生境的白鹤肠道微生物群落结构差异显著(R²=0.312, P<0.05)。不同人工生境鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物组成存在差异,藕田白鹤肠道微生物的优势菌属是土孢杆菌属、罗布西亚属和苏黎世杆菌属;稻田白鹤肠道微生物的优势菌属是乳酸杆菌属、里氏杆菌属和球菌属。线性判别分析[line discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size, LEfSe]分析发现乳杆菌科、乳酸杆菌属、苏黎世杆菌属等具有较强发酵代谢碳水化合物能力的微生物在2种人工生境下差异显著。PICRUSt功能预测表明鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物与新陈代谢、基因信息处理、环境信息处理和人类疾病等功能相关,在level 1水平上,有5类代谢通路具有显著性差异(P<0.001)。【结论】两种人工生境中鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物组成和群落特征差异较大,可能是由于同域觅食鸟类的种类、数量以及食物来源的不同。同时,PICRUSt功能预测揭示了不同人工生境中鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物功能基因丰度的显著差异,表明白鹤可以通过调整自身肠道微生物组成来适应不同人工生境食物资源的变化带来的挑战。本研究对不同人工生境下白鹤肠道微生物的组成和功能潜力的研究结果可以为鄱阳湖越冬白鹤肠道微生物的研究提供一定依据,对于白鹤的保护和制定管理策略具有一定的参考价值和现实意义。     

Winter coexistence in herbivorous waterbirds: Niche differentiation in a floodplain,Poyang Lake,China

The classical niche theory supports the idea that stable coexistence requires ecological differences between closely related species. However, information on waterbirds coexistence in the entirely landlocked freshwater system of Poyang Lake is not well understood, especially when the available biomass of their food in the area decreases. In this study, we tested the ecological segregation mechanisms in the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 wintering periods among eight herbivorous waterbirds (including the Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus, hooded crane Grus monacha, white‐naped crane Grus vipio, common crane Grus grus, greater white‐fronted goose Anser albifrons, bean goose Anser fabalis, swan goose Anser cygnoides, and tundra swan Cygnus columbianus) at Poyang Lake. Using field observations and species niche and foraging habitat selection models, we investigated the abundance, distribution, and food sources of these eight waterbird species to quantify and compare their habitat use and ecological niches. Our results showed that niche segregation among the waterbirds, with respect to food types, time, and spatial location, allow them to coexist and use similar resources. The water level gradually receded in the sub‐lakes of the Poyang Lake, which could provide food sources and various habitats for wintering herbivorous waterbirds to coexist. We demonstrated that the differences in habitat use could mitigate interspecific competition, which may explain the mechanism whereby waterbirds of Poyang Lake coexist during the wintering period, despite considerable overlap in the dietary niches of herbivorous waterbirds.     

Observations of mixed-species bird flocks at Kichwa Tembo Camp,Kenya

Mixed-species foraging flocks were studied at Kichwa Tembo Camp on the edge of the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya between July and September 2004. Observations were made on 29 mixed-species flocks, in which 24 species participated. African Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis, Black-backed Puffback Dryoscopus cubla, Grey-backed Camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura, Collared Sunbird Hedydipna collars and Cabanis's Greenbul Phyllastrephus cabanisi were the most common participants in mixed-species flocks, as well as among the most frequently encountered bird species overall. The Black-backed Puffback was identified as the nuclear species in flocks due to their abundance and frequency with which they were followed by other species. Mixed-species flocks represent another niche dimension in this diverse bird community, but few of these species could be described as flock specialists; most of the birds observed in mixed-species flocks in this study were opportunistic attendant species, including the African Pygmy-Kingfisher Ispidina picta, not previously described as joining mixed-species flocks.     

鄱阳湖区灰鹤越冬种群数量与分布动态及其影响因素

1998—2011年,采用地面同步调查法开展了鄱阳湖越冬灰鹤种群监测,并整合1984—2011年鄱阳湖国家级自然保护区历年的越冬灰鹤最大种群数量,分析了鄱阳湖灰鹤越冬种群动态以及影响其数量变化与空间分布的环境因素。结果表明,近13年来鄱阳湖区越冬灰鹤种群平均数量为(2 335±651)只,种群数量呈增长趋势,2011年冬季记录到最大种群数量7 640只。灰鹤越冬种群数量与10月平均最低气温以及10月平均气温存在显著正相关,与10月平均最大风速存在显著负相关,与各月的平均水位没有显著的相关性。每年冬季灰鹤在鄱阳湖呈聚集型分布。大湖池、大莲子湖、三湖、汉池湖、企湖、珠湖、南湖(共青)、大汊湖等8个湖泊是灰鹤的重点活动区,(74.9±5.6)%的越冬灰鹤分布在保护区之外。灰鹤的空间分布与滩地面积存在显著的正相关,与农田面积、人口密度、村庄数量、8月份初级生产力、11月份初级生产力等环境因子存在显著负相关。滩地面积是影响灰鹤空间分布的重要因子,对灰鹤利用频次空间变化的解释率为15.0%,与11月份初级生产力共同解释了灰鹤年平均群体数量空间变化的24.6%。如竞争、小生境结构、干扰等局地尺度的环境要素对灰鹤空间分布的影响研究将有助于更全面地认识鄱阳湖越冬灰鹤种群动态的影响机制。     

Does interference competition explain why White Terns of Aride Island,Seychelles, breed predominantly when marine productivity is lower?

White Terns Gygis alba breed throughout the year on Aride Island but show a marked preference to nest during the northwest monsoon (November–March), when interspecific competition and also marine productivity are considered to be lower. In this study we investigated and compared breeding and foraging parameters of White Terns between the northwest and southeast (May–September) monsoons to assess whether interspecific competition affected foraging activity and explained the timing of breeding of White Terns. Goatfish (Mullidae) dominated the diet of White Terns and no significant differences were found in diet composition between the northwest and southeast monsoons. Similar diets and patterns of food provisioning of White Terns between the two monsoons do not support the hypothesis of strong exploitation competition during the southeast monsoon. On the other hand, foraging behaviour and frequency of capture attempts of White Terns differed between the two monsoons. The percentages of multi‐species flocks with White Terns and of large flocks with more than 25 noddies Anous and terns Onychoprion were significantly higher during the southeast monsoon. Moreover, capture attempt frequencies of White Terns foraging in multi‐species flocks were lower than those of solitary individuals, and both solitary and flocking White Terns had significantly lower capture attempt frequencies during the southeast monsoon in comparison with the northwest monsoon. These results suggest that interference competition depresses foraging activity of flock‐foraging White Terns, particularly during the southeast monsoon, which could potentially explain why White Terns breed preferentially during the northwest monsoon. However, and despite avoiding interference competition, White Terns nesting during the northwest monsoon did not show higher breeding success than those nesting during the southeast monsoon. Other hypotheses that might explain the preference of White Terns for breeding during the northwest monsoon, such as avoidance of agonistic interactions with Lesser Noddies Anous tenuirostris at nest sites, should also be investigated.