Isolation and characterization of 14 microsatellite markers in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macrodasyceras</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">hirsutum</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Torymidae)

Macrodasyceras hirsutum Kamijo is the seed parasitoid wasp of the bird-dispersed, dioecious tree, Ilex integra Thunb. The wasp reduces the level of dispersal mutualism between the Ilex tree and its frugivorous birds by manipulating the color of mature berries. The female trees do not blossom every year and sometimes change sex. Thus, the reproduction biology of I. integra affects the population size and structure of M. hirsutum in a forest and consequently influences the seed dispersal mutualism between the tree and birds, because of limited ability of adult locomotion. To investigate the wasp population structure with reference to the dispersal mutualism between trees and birds, we isolated 14 microsatellite loci of M. hirsutum wasps. Every locus was polymorphic among 20 females, with 3–13 alleles per locus, without linkage disequilibrium. The observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.100 to 0.900 and 0.099 to 0.818, respectively, indicating their utility in molecular analyses of the wasp population.     

Range expansion and increasing impact of the introduced wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphidius</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">matricariae</Emphasis> Haliday on sub-Antarctic Marion Island

Despite the significance of biological invasions in the Antarctic region, understanding of the rates of spread and impact of introduced species is limited. Such information is necessary to develop and to justify management actions. Here we quantify rates of spread and changes in impact of the introduced wasp Aphidius matricariae Haliday, which parasitizes the invasive aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (L.), on sub-Antarctic Marion Island, to which the wasp was introduced in ca. 2001. Between 2006 and 2011, the wasp had colonised all coastal sites, with an estimated rate of spread of 3–5 km year^?1. Adult abundance doubled over the period, while impact, measured as mean percentage parasitism of R. padi, had increased from 6.9 to 30.1 %. Adult wasps have thermal tolerances (LT50s) of between ?18 and 33.8 °C, with a crystallization temperature of ?22.9 °C, and little tolerance (ca. 37 h) of low humidity at 10 °C. Desiccation intolerance is probably limiting for the adult wasps, while distribution of their aphid host likely sets ultimate distributional limits, especially towards higher elevations where R. padi is absent, despite the presence of its host grass on the island, Poa cookii (Hook. f.). Rising temperatures are benefitting P. cookii, and will probably do the same for both R. padi and A. matricariae. Our study shows that once established, spread of introduced species on the island may be rapid, emphasizing the importance of initial quarantine.     

Artificial transfer of a thelytoky-inducing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> endosymbiont between strains of the endoparasitoid wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Asobara japonica</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Infection with Wolbachia is known to induce diploidization of haploid eggs and enables the production of females from unfertilized eggs. Although there have been several attempts to achieve the artificial horizontal transfer of thelytoky-inducing Wolbachia in parasitoid wasps, the artificial induction of thelytoky has generally been unsuccessful. In this study, we used two strains of Asobara japonica as study materials—one infected with thelytoky-inducing Wolbachia and the other not. We investigated methods of artificially inducing thelytoky by transferring thelytoky-inducing Wolbachia from wasps of the infected strain (the donor wasps) to wasps that had been cured of Wolbachia and to wasps of the uninfected strain (the recipient wasps). To examine the efficiencies of various methods of transfection, we compared the survival and infection rates of recipient wasps that received microinjections at the pupal and adult stages and in different body parts. We also examined the infection rate of the recipients due to cannibalism of Wolbachia-infected pupae. Among those methods, only microinjection at the adult stage resulted in the successful artificial horizontal transfer of Wolbachia, and some of the Wolbachia-infected wasps showed incomplete thelytoky. A low Wolbachia titer in the artificially infected wasps may explain why the thelytoky was incomplete.     

Predatory specialization in the wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphex ingens</Emphasis> for the capture of katydids

Sphex ingens is one of 30 species in the family Sphecidae that occur in the state of Rio de Janeiro. However, details of the behavior and sexual selection of natural populations of this wasp species have only recently been unveiled. In addition, the knowledge of its ecology is still poor. This is the first study on the feeding behavior interactions between S. ingens and prey captured to feed its larvae. Paralyzed prey were collected manually at the sites of wasp nests on Aventureiro Beach, Ilha Grande, Brazil during the provisioning activity of marked female S. ingens. All prey were preserved, their sex and sexual maturity were determined, and they were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. The body mass and size of the prey and female wasps were measured. Sphex ingens females captured only Pleminia vicina and Meroncidius sp. The body masses of wasps and katydids were positively correlated. The body mass of captured katydids was significantly dependent on the wasp’s wing length. Most of the prey were adult females, but the differences did not confirm possible preferences, as those values can be related to differences in the distribution and fluctuation in the population density of prey species and to the individual foraging strategies of female wasps. However, the predisposition to predatory specialization exhibited by S. ingens populations in Ilha Grande and elsewhere suggests that this interaction can be an important source of mortality for populations of pseudophylline katydid species.     

Distribution and habitats of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea</Emphasis>) butterflies and population ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phengaris</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">teleius</Emphasis> in China

Many species of the butterfly genus Phengaris are regarded as endangered in many parts of their distribution. Several species are also widely distributed across northern China. Due to land use change and overgrazing, their habitats are declining and many patches have been lost. This paper investigates the distribution and habitats of the Chinese Phengaris species (of the subgenus Maculinea). Shrub-grassland near forests seem the most frequent habitat for Phengaris, while flat open grasslands are mostly over-grazed and thus survival for Phengaris butterflies there seems difficult. Throughout Europe, P. teleius is an endangered species, while there is still no information on its status in China. To improve the knowledge on the population ecology of P. teleius, its population structure, adult behaviour and movement were studied through mark–release–recapture methods in the Qinling Mountains of Taibai County. Eight grassland patches which were potentially suitable were found in the area in 2013. In total, 480 individuals (274 females) were marked, resulting in an overall recapture rate of 16 %. The average daily population size was 44 butterflies (±23 SD) during the adult flight period. Sixty-seven percent of the females and 38 % of the males moved less than 50 m, and 17 % of recaptured females and 38 % of males moved more than 200 m. The mean movement distance was 107 ± 177 m for males and 182 ± 122 m for females. The majority of the recaptures (86 %) were made within the patches, only a few individuals (14 %) moved between patches. Due to human disturbance and destruction, all of the eight potentially suitable patches are becoming smaller and increasingly isolated, thus these populations of P. teleius may face an increasing risk of extinction, which may well be a tip of the iceberg of habitat loss and fragmentation of P. teleius in Taibai County and possibly beyond. Hence we hope our initial study of P. teleius could have positive impacts on the conservation of Phengaris butterflies in China.     

The fungal matrices of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiostoma ips</Emphasis> hinder movement of the biocontrol nematode agent, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Deladenus siricidicola</Emphasis>, disrupting management of the woodwasp, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sirex noctilio</Emphasis>

Deladenus (=?Beddingia) siricidicola (Tylenchida: Neotylenchidae) is the most effective biocontrol agent used against the invasive wood wasp, Sirex noctilio (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Siricidae). The nematodes feed and reproduce on the wood-inhabiting fungus, Amylostereum areolatum (Chaillet ex Fr.) Boidin (Russulales: Amylostereaceae) and parasitise larvae of S. noctilio. In the nematode biocontrol program, the nematodes are inoculated into herbicide-weakened ‘trap trees’. Recent declines in nematode parasitism of S. noctilio in Australia have coincided with an increased incidence of an exotic bark beetle, Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), attacking trap trees and vectoring a wood-inhabiting fungus, Ophiostoma ips (Rumbold) Nannfelt (Ophiostomatales: Ophiostomataceae), which may inhibit migration of the nematode within the tree to the detriment of S. noctilio biocontrol. Several in vitro and in vivo experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of fungal interactions on the ability of D. siricidicola to locate and reproduce on A. areolatum. Deladenus siricidicola showed preference to A. areolatum in the presence and absence of O. ips, but the presence of O. ips negatively affected the choice response and the number of eggs laid by the nematodes. Deladenus siricidicola was unable to survive and reproduce on O. ips. Results give a clearer understanding of the choice response of D. siricidicola in I. grandicollis infested trees, explaining the disruptive impact of bark beetles on biocontrol of S. noctilio, an effect that could extend from Australia to other important pine growing countries.     

Consequences of the arms race between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Maculinea teleius</Emphasis> social parasite and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Myrmica</Emphasis> host ants for myrmecophilous butterfly conservation

The arms race between Maculinea butterflies and Myrmica host ants leads to local host-parasite adaptations. In our study, we assessed whether sympatric and allopatric Myrmica scabrinodis populations exhibit behavioural differences towards Maculinea teleius larvae during the adoption-period when butterfly larvae need to be taken inside the Myrmica nest. The second aim was to assess the butterfly survival rate inside ant colonies from different populations. We used one sympatric host population and three allopatric populations: one infested by M. teleius and two uninfested populations. We found that ants from the sympatric population showed a higher number of positive behaviours toward M. teleius larvae during adoption than ants from the allopatric populations. There were no differences in the number of inspection or negative behaviour events. The survival of butterfly larvae was highest inside sympatric host colonies and differed from the survival of M. teleius reared by ants from the allopatric, uninfested populations. No difference was found for the survival rate of M. teleius raised by infested, allopatric host colonies compared to sympatric host populations. Our results suggest the lack of behavioural counter-adaptations of local hosts of M. teleius that more easily adopt and rear butterfly caterpillars compared to naive M. scabrinodis colonies. Our results may also have implications for Maculinea butterfly conservation, especially for reintroduction programmes. We suggest that the existence of behavioural host defences should be checked for the source host population, as well as for the Myrmica population from the reintroduction site. It may also be reasonable to introduce several Myrmica host colonies from the source butterfly host population.     

Role of Arabidopsis <Emphasis Type="Italic">ABF1</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">3</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">4</Emphasis> during <Emphasis Type="Italic">det1</Emphasis> germination in salt and osmotic stress conditions

Key message

Arabidopsis det1 mutants exhibit salt and osmotic stress resistant germination. This phenotype requires HY5, ABF1, ABF3, and ABF4.

Abstract

While DE-ETIOLATED 1 (DET1) is well known as a negative regulator of light development, here we describe how det1 mutants also exhibit altered responses to salt and osmotic stress, specifically salt and mannitol resistant germination. LONG HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) positively regulates both light and abscisic acid (ABA) signalling. We found that hy5 suppressed the det1 salt and mannitol resistant germination phenotype, thus, det1 stress resistant germination requires HY5. We then queried publically available microarray datasets to identify genes downstream of HY5 that were differentially expressed in det1 mutants. Our analysis revealed that ABA regulated genes, including ABA RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING FACTOR 3 (ABF3), are downregulated in det1 seedlings. We found that ABF3 is induced by salt in wildtype seeds, while homologues ABF4 and ABF1 are repressed, and all three genes are underexpressed in det1 seeds. We then investigated the role of ABF3, ABF4, and ABF1 in det1 phenotypes. Double mutant analysis showed that abf3, abf4, and abf1 all suppress the det1 salt/osmotic stress resistant germination phenotype. In addition, abf1 suppressed det1 rapid water loss and open stomata phenotypes. Thus interactions between ABF genes contribute to det1 salt/osmotic stress response phenotypes.

     

Genome-wide identification and evolution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">TC1</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mariner</Emphasis> in the silkworm (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bombyx mori</Emphasis>) genome

TC1/Mariner transposons belong to class II transposable elements (TEs) that use DNA-mediated “cut and paste” mechanism to transpose, and they have been identified in almost all organisms. Although silkworm (Bombyx mori) has a large amount of TC1/Mariner elements, the genome wide information of this superfamily in the silkworm is unknown. In this study, we have identified 2670 TC1/Mariner (Bmmar) elements in the silkworm genome. All the TEs were classified into 22 families by means of fgclust, a tool of repetitive sequence classification, seven of which was first reported in this study. Phylogenetic and structure analyses based on the catalytic domain (DDxD/E) of transposase sequences indicated that all members of TC1/Mariner were grouped into five subgroups: Mariner, Tc1, maT, DD40D and DD41D/E. Of these five subgroups, maT rather than Mariner possessed most members of TC1/Mariner (51.23%) in the silkworm genome. In particular, phylogenetic analysis and structure analysis revealed that Bmmar15 (DD40D) formed a new basal subgroup of TC1/Mariner element in insects, which was referred to as bmori. Furthermore, we concluded that DD40D appeared to intermediate between mariner and Tc1. Finally, we estimated the insertion time for each copy of TC1/Mariner in the silkworm and found that most of members were dramatically amplified during a period from 0 to 1 mya. Moreover, the detailed functional data analysis showed that Bmmar1, Bmmar6 and Bmmar9 had EST evidence and intact transposases. These implied that TC1/Mariner might have potential transpositional activity. In conclusion, this study provides some new insights into the landscape, origin and evolution of TC1/Mariner in the insect genomes.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Adh</Emphasis> locus and adaptation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">cn</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">vg</Emphasis> mutants in experimental populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster MEIG</Emphasis>

A complex study on the adaptation of cn and vn mutants and the allozymes of alcoholdehydrogenase (ADH) was carried out in initially pure lines, and their panmixia populations during exchange of the mutant genotype with that of wild-type flies (C-S) and D) through saturating crossings. The relative adaptation of the genotypes was estimated by their effect on reproductive efficiency in the experimentally obtained population. Fecundity, lifespan, and the resistance of the studied genotypes to hyperthermia were investigated individually. It was shown that the high level of adaptation of the cn mutants and the low level of adaptation of the vg mutants was correlated with the presence of different ADH allozymes. In the studied population, the F-allozyme of ADH accompanied the vg mutation, while the S-allozyme of the enzyme was detected in cn mutants. Saturating crossings of C-S(Adh ^S)×vg(Adh ^F) and D(Adh ^F) × cn(Adh ^S), along with the parallel determination of the allele composition of the Adh locus, demonstrated that the complete substitution of the F-allozyme of ADH in the vg mutants by the S-allozyme in D flies, as well as the substitution of the S-allozyme of ADH in the cn mutants by the F-allozyme in D flies was realized only after the 15th–20th backcrosses. These results favor the coadaptation of cn and vg marker genes with alleles of the Adh locus and indicate the important role of the latter in the adaptation of genotypes. In the studied population, selection acted primarily against the vg mutants, which were inferior to the cn mutants, and heterozygote genotypes in indices of the main adaptation components.     

Geographical variation of skull characters in pikas (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ochotona</Emphasis>, Lagomorpha) of the<Emphasis Type="Italic">alpina-hyperborea</Emphasis> group

A multivariate analysis of 11 skull measurements, along with evaluation of the shape of maxill-premaxill suture at palatine foramina, was carried out in pikas of thealpina-hyperborea group. The study provided rational for recognition of three distinct species in this group:Ochotona alpina (Pallas, 1773),O. hyperborea (Pallas, 1811), andO. turuchanensis Naumov, 1934.O. turuchanensis is a species from central Siberia differing fromO. hyperborea in the chromosome number and type of palatine foramina and fromO. alpina in size of the skull. This species is allopatric withO. alpina and partly sympatric withO. hyperborea. The subspeciessvatoshi is reportedly allocated toO. hyperborea. The taxonomic status ofmantchurica (now allocated tohyperborea) and scorodumovi (treated at present as an isolated subspecies of O. alpina) needs careful investigation.     

Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes concerning <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ormopteris</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pellaea</Emphasis> (Pteridaceae) in Brazil

We typify and clarify the nomenclature and identity of three species originally described in the fern genus Pellaea. We find Pellaea bongardiana to be illegitimate and recognize it as a synonym of Ormopteris riedelii (= P. riedelii). We also consider Pellaea brasiliensis to be a synonym of O. riedelii. The phylogenetic position of Pellaea flavescens, recently combined in Ormopteris (as O. flavescens), is discussed, and a key to all species of Ormopteris in Brazil is provided.     

The origins of global invasions of the German wasp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vespula germanica</Emphasis>) and its infection with four honey bee viruses

A successful control or eradication programme using biological control or genetically-mediated methods requires knowledge of the origin and the extent of wasp genetic diversity. Mitochondrial DNA variation in the native and invaded range of the social wasp Vespula germanica was used to examine intra-specific genetic variation and invasive source populations. We also examined wasps for the presence of four viruses found in honey bees: Acute bee paralysis virus, Deformed wing virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus and Kashmir bee virus. German wasps showed reduced genetic diversity in the invaded range compared to that of their native range. Populations in the introduced range are likely to have arrived from different source populations. All four viral honey bee pathogens were found in V. germanica, although they varied in their distribution and strain. Multiple introductions of German wasps have occurred for most invaded regions, though some populations are genetically homogenous. The differing locations of origin will guide researchers searching for biocontrol agents and the reduced genetic diversity may make these wasps a potentially viable target for control via gene drives.     

Deletion of <Emphasis Type="Italic">ldh</Emphasis>A and <Emphasis Type="Italic">ald</Emphasis>H genes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Klebsiella</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">pneumoniae</Emphasis> to enhance 1,3-propanediol production

Objectives

To improve 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD) production and reduce byproduct concentration during the fermentation of Klebsiella pneumonia.

Results

Klebsiella. pneumonia 2-1ΔldhA, K. pneumonia 2-1ΔaldH and K. pneumonia 2-1ΔldhAΔaldH mutant strains were obtained through deletion of the ldhA gene encoding lactate dehydrogenase required for lactate synthesis and the aldH gene encoding acetaldehyde dehydrogenase involved in the synthesis of ethanol. After fed-batch fermentation, the production of 1,3-PD from glycerol was enhanced and the concentrations of byproducts were reduced compared with the original strain K. pneumonia 2-1. The maximum yields of 1,3-PD were 85.7, 82.5 and 87.5 g/l in the respective mutant strains.

Conclusion

Deletion of either aldH or ldhA promoted 1,3-PD production in K. pneumonia.

     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quinua</Emphasis> and Relatives (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> subsect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celluloid</Emphasis>)

Traditionally viewed as an Andean grain crop,Chenopodium quinoa Willd. includes domesticated populations that are not Andean, and Andean populations that are not domesticated. Comparative analysis of leaf morphology and allozyme frequencies have demonstrated that Andean populations, both domesticated(quinua) and free-living(ajara), represent an exceptionally homogeneous unit that is well differentiated from allied domesticates of coastal Chile(quingua) and freeliving populations of the Argentine lowlands(C. hircinum). This pattern of relationships indicates that Andean populations represent a monophyletic crop/weed system that has possibly developed through cyclic differentiation (natural vs. human selection) and introgressive hybridization. Relative levels of variation suggest that this complex originated in the southern Andes, possibly from wild types allied withC. hircinum, with subsequent dispersal north to Colombia and south to the Chilean coast. Coastal populations were apparently isolated from post-dispersal differentiation and homogenization that occurred in the Andes. Other data point toward a center of origin in the northern Andes with secondary centers of genetic diversity subsequently developing in the southern Andes and the plains of Argentina. Comparative linkage of South American taxa, all tetraploid, with North American tetraploids of the subsection will eventually clarify this problem. While the possibility of a direct phyletic connection betweenC. quinoa and the Mexican domesticate(C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae,) cannot be excluded, available evidence indicates that the latter represents an autonomous lineage that is associated with the basal tetraploid, C. b. subsp.berlandieri, through var.sinuatum, whereas South American taxa show possible affinities to either var. zschackei or var.berlandieri. An extinct domesticate of eastern North America,C. b. subsp.jonesianum, represents either another instance of independent domestication, possibly from subsp. b. var.zschackei, or a northeastern outlier of subsp.nuttalliae.     

Phosphinothricin-resistant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica napus</Emphasis> + <Emphasis Type="Italic">Orychophragmus violaceus</Emphasis> somatic hybrids

Hybrid plants resistant to phosphinothricin (PPT) are obtained as a result of experiments with somatic hybridization between Brassica napus L. cv. Kalinins’kyy and Orychophragmus violaceus L. O.E. Shulz. The hybrids inherited PPT resistance from O. violaceus plants that had been previously transformed by a vector containing the maize transposon system Spm/dSPm with bar gene located within the nonautonomous transposon. The morphologically obtained plants occupy an intermediate position between the initial forms, which is in agreement with the results of isoenzyme analyses (analysis of multiple forms of amylase and esterase) and PCR analysis (presence of the genes bar, gus, and SpmTPase). Inheritance of the plastome occurs from oilseed rape, while that of the mitochondrion, from O. violaceus, which is proved by means of PCR-RFLP analysis. The plant hybrids may be utilized for further selection research with oilseed rape following determination of the edible quality of its oil as well as in experiments with chloroplast transformation, a topic which is of critical importance for oilseed rape.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Diplazium</Emphasis> hybrids involving <Emphasis Type="Italic">D. plantaginifolium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">D</Emphasis>. <Emphasis Type="Italic">ternatum</Emphasis> from Mexico and Central America

Here we evaluate the origins and relationships of Mexican and Central American Diplazium hybrids derived from crosses involving either D. plantaginifolium or D. ternatum. Based on study of live plants and herbarium specimens, we distinguish D. ×verapax from the similar D. riedelianum and present evidence that the former is a sterile hybrid derived from a cross between D. plantaginifolium and D. werckleanum. We also describe new hybrids, D. ×torresianum and D. ×subternatum from Mexico and northern Central America. Both involve D. ternatum as one parent. Diplazium. cristatum is the other putative parent of D. ×torresianum, and D. plantaginifolium is the second parent of D. ×subternatum. We also designate lectotypes for D. cordovense and D. dissimile.     

Intraguild predation on the aphid parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphelinus asychis</Emphasis> by the ladybird <Emphasis Type="Italic">Harmonia axyridis</Emphasis>

We investigated intraguild predation (IGP) on an aphid parasitoid, Aphelinus asychis Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), by the multicolored Asian ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and used the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) as the prey/host in the laboratory. The ladybirds reared on artificial diet and on aphids consumed more aphids than mummies, while those reared on parasitized aphids consumed similar numbers of aphids and mummies. The ladybirds chose more mummies in treatments when mummies were more abundant, and more aphids when numbers of aphids and mummies were equal, or when aphids were more abundant. However, at all density treatments, rejection rates of mummies (36%) were much greater than of aphids (2%). H. axyridis prey on more aphids than A. asychis mummies, which enhances biological control by the two species. However, prior feeding experience affected subsequent choice, increasing the competition between natural enemies which would reduce their combined effectiveness for biological control.     

Horizontal transfer of the C-termini of <Emphasis Type="Italic">tccC</Emphasis> genes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Photorhabdus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenorhabdus</Emphasis>

The high molecular weight insecticidal toxin complexes (Tcs), including four toxin-complex loci (tca, tcb, tcc and tcd), were first identified in Photorhabdus luminescens W14. Each member of tca, tcb or tcc is required for oral toxicity of Tcs. However, the sequence sources of the C-termini of tccC3, tccC4, tccC6 and tccC7 are unknown. Here, we performed a whole genome survey to identify the orthologs of Tc genes, and found 165 such genes in 14 bacterial genomes, including 40 genes homologous to tccC1-7 in P. luminescens TT01. The sequence sources of the C-termini of tccC2-6 were determined by sequence analysis. Further phylogenetic investigations suggested that the C-termini of 6 tccC genes experienced horizontal gene transfer events.     

Predation of diaspidid scale insects on kiwifruit vines by European earwigs, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Forficula auricularia</Emphasis>, and steel-blue ladybirds, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Halmus chalybeus</Emphasis>

Significant predation of diaspidid scale insects occurs in unsprayed kiwifruit crops. Two predators, Forficula auricularia L. (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) and Halmus chalybeus (Boisduval) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) are likely to be important. Most F. auricularia were found as late instars or adults in the canopy of kiwifruit vines in late spring and early summer. Adults of H. chalybeus were present throughout the year but at lower densities on kiwifruit vines than on other host plants. In the field predation of scale insects occurred mainly at night and preferentially on late-instar scale insects consistent with the feeding behaviour of F. auricularia, not H.chalybeus. The latter mainly fed on early instar insects during the day. Numbers of scale insect crawlers were not correlated with numbers of F. auricularia or of H. chalybeus in kiwifruit vine canopies.