Ethnobiology of snappers (Lutjanidae): target species and suggestions for management

In this study, we sought to investigate the biology (diet and reproduction) and ethnobiology (fishers knowledge and fishing spots used to catch snappers) of five species of snappers (Lutjanidae), including Lutjanus analis, Lutjanus synagris, Lutjanus vivanus, Ocyurus chrysurus, and Romboplites saliens at five sites along the northeast (Riacho Doce, Maceió in Alagoas State, and Porto do Sauípe, Entre Rios at Bahia State) and the southeast (SE) Brazilian coast (Paraty and Rio de Janeiro cities at Rio de Janeiro State, and Bertioga, at São Paulo State.). We collected 288 snappers and interviewed 86 fishermen. The stomach contents of each fish were examined and macroscopic gonad analysis was performed. Snappers are very important for the fisheries of NE Brazil, and our results indicated that some populations, such as mutton snapper (L. analis) and lane snapper (L. synagris), are being caught when they are too young, at early juvenile stages. Local knowledge has been shown to be a powerful tool for determining appropriate policies regarding management of target species, and artisanal fishermen can be included in management processes. Other suggestions for managing the fisheries are discussed, including proposals that could provide motivation for artisanal fishermen to participate in programs to conserve resources, such as co-management approaches that utilize local knowledge, the establishment of fishing seasons, and compensation of fishermen, through 'payment for environmental services'. These suggestions may enhance the participation of local artisanal fishermen in moving to a more realistic and less top-down management approach of the fish population.     

When Does this Fish Spawn? Fishermen’s Local Knowledge of Migration and Reproduction of Brazilian Coastal Fishes

Fishermen’s local knowledge of fishing resources may be an important source of information to improve artisanal tropical fisheries management, such as those found in Brazil, where most data on fish biology is lacking. We aim to study the local ecological knowledge that Brazilian coastal fishers have about reproductive aspects (season, places and migration) of 13 coastal fish species of commercial importance. We selected fishermen with more than 30 years of fishing practice and we interviewed a total of 67 fishermen: 29 from the southeastern coast, from the communities of Puruba, Almada, Picinguaba and Bertioga, and 38 from the northeastern coast, from the communities of Valença, Arembepe and Porto Sauípe. In the interviews, we used standardized questionnaires and showed photos of fish species. Our results indicate some general patterns in fishes’ reproduction according to fishermen knowledge: fish species spawn in open ocean, near reefs or in coastal rivers (estuaries); some fishes reproduce during the summer and others in winter, while some have more defined spawning months. The main fish migratory patterns mentioned by interviewees were: long migrations along the coast, usually in the South to North direction, short migrations among reefs, fishes that do not migrate, migrations between the shore and open ocean and migrations between the sea and coastal rivers. Fishermen’s knowledge differed among fish species: most fishermen did not know spawning places or seasons of large pelagic fishes, which raised concerns of their possible depletion. We compared such ethnoichthyological information with available scientific data, indicating promising insights about reproduction and migration of Brazilian coastal fishes. Data gathered from local fishermen may provide inexpensive and prompt information, potentially applicable to fisheries management. Our approach might be useful to several other small-scale fisheries, especially the tropical ones, where there is a high diversity of target species and a low biological and ecological knowledge about these species.     

DNA barcoding of coastal ichthyofauna from Bahia,northeastern Brazil,South Atlantic: High efficiency for systematics and identification of cryptic diversity

In spite of the utility of DNA barcoding in discriminating marine fish species, few studies using this technique are available along the Brazilian coast, which encompasses nearly 9000 km, distinct biogeographic regions and endemism rates. Therefore, in the present work, we provided the first DNA barcode library based on sequencing of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) for Actinopterygii fish from northeastern coast of Brazil. The database included 459 specimens from 54 genera, 31 families and 13 orders, with mean interspecific genetic distance of and mean intraspecific distance of 0.15%. As a result, the neighbor-joining (NJ) tree resulted in the molecular identification of 78 taxa. Cryptic species were indicated in Eucinostomus (mojarras) since the 82 specimens morphologically identified as Eucinostomus melanopterus or Eucinostomus sp. formed five clusters with intraspecific genetic distances up to 0.31% and lowest interspecific distance of 11.14%. Eucinostomus jonesii and Eucinostomus harengulus were identified for the first time in ichthyofauna inventories from northeastern Brazil. The present work has also added new records to the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD), thereby favoring the identification of other specimens at different life stages or in forensic studies. The present dataset reinforces the reliability of DNA barcoding to estimate the overlooked richness of marine fish in Brazilian coast with application in conservation, ecology, systematics and fisheries.     

Baseline assessment of reef fish assemblages of Parcel Manuel Luiz Marine State Park, Maranhão, north-east Brazil

A rich and apparently undisturbed fish community (132 species from 52 families) is found in the Parcel Manuel Luiz Marine State Park, Brazil. Comparisons with data obtained in other sites in Brazil and the Caribbean, using the same visual census technique, demonstrate high variation in community structure. The absence of some species found along the Brazilian coast suggests an ecological barrier between the study area and the remaining coastline.     

Genetic and morphometric evidence that the jacks (Carangidae) fished off the coast of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) comprise four different species

Individuals of jacks that were captured off the Rio de Janeiro coast were characterized using multivariate morphometrics and allozymes molecular markers. The main objectives were to determine the number of fish captured and their species. Classical taxonomic classification and multivariate morphometry indicated the existence of three species in the landings from Rio de Janeiro State (Caranx crysos, Carangoides bartholomaei and Caranx latus). The results of the genetic analyses performed were consistent with these results. However, Bayesian analysis revealed the possible presence of a fourth species, which could not be discriminated by classical taxonomy. Caranx crysos possibly comprises two different species. Other population indexes, such as unique alleles, degree of structuring and genetic identity, also pointed to different species. Therefore, based on evidences from classical taxonomy, geometric morphometric analyses together with genetic data from allozymes molecular markers it is possible to support that at least four different Carangidae species are present in fish landings from Niterói, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, whereas fish capture records for the same location have recorded only two species. These results are important for not only developing fisheries management strategies but also providing general information regarding the ecology and evolution of the genus.     

Composition and structure of reef fish communities in Paraíba State,north‐eastern Brazil

The composition and trophic structure of reef fish communities in two natural and two artificial reefs along the coast of Paraíba State in north‐eastern Brazil were investigated. A total of 114 species of fish belonging to 47 families were recorded during 120 stationary visual surveys, slightly less than half (46·55%) of which were recorded at all four surveyed localities. Most species are widely distributed on the western Atlantic coast, but several are endemic to Brazil. The greatest diversity and equitability indexes were recorded at the reefs of Sapatas and Cabeço dos Cangulos, whereas the greatest richness and abundance were found at the Queimado shipwreck. The Alvarenga shipwreck reef had the least richness, diversity and equitability. The four localities studied had very similar ichthyofaunas, especially in relation to species composition. The reefs along the Paraíba coast are considered priority conservation areas by the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment, and the information generated by this study will be useful for comparison with other reefs in the region and can be directly applied to programmes seeking to protect and manage these environments.     

Molecular phylogeography of western Mediterranean dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus

Intraspecific sequence variation in a portion of the gene coding for cytochrome b in the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus Lowe 1834), an endangered fish species in various regions of the Mediterranean sea, was examined in 29 individuals from the western Mediterranean sea. Sixty-four phylogenetically informative nucleotide positions were present in a 353-base pair cytochrome b sequence, amplified using the polymerase chain reaction. Statistical analysis of the sequence data using a variety of tree-building algorithms separated the taxa into one group of dusky groupers corresponding to some of the Algerian individuals and another regrouped set of fishes originating in France, Tunisia and the remaining Algerian specimens. Although, on the basis of their morphology, E. marginatus are now considered as a single species, our results suggest that a subgroup of the Algerian dusky grouper constitutes a cryptic (undescribed) species. These results suggest that morphological and genetic evolution may be uncoupled in dusky grouper, resulting in morphological similarity between species despite extensive genetic divergence. In addition, we cannot rule out the possibility of gene introgression with other species of grouper. A more in depth phylogenetic analysis (i.e. between and within the different Epinephelus species) would likely affect many conservation management decisions about this assemblage of groupers.     

Haplotype-specific single-locus multiplex PCR assay for molecular identification of sea-bob shrimp,Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (Heller, 1862), cryptic species from the Southwest Atlantic using a DNA pooling strategy for simultaneous identification of multiple samples

This work describes a single-locus multiplex PCR assay based on partial COI mitochondrial gene polymorphisms for identification of two Atlantic cryptic species of the sea-bob shrimp, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (Heller, 1862) that were recently identified using molecular approaches. Reliable identification of cryptic species of Xiphopenaeus spp. has fundamental implications for management and conservation of the sea-bob shrimp fishery stocks. The assay was developed based on sequence polymorphisms of 130 specimens of both species, comprising samples from Venezuela to the southern coast of Brazil, validated by the amplification of 368 adult shrimp samples from nine different locations and confirmed by direct sequencing. The methodology has been optimized to enable the identification of equi-molar mixtures of DNA from up to 10 individuals by PCR reaction, allowing the fast and cheap identification of many specimens for large scale studies on fisheries biology and population genetics. The DNA pooling strategy enabled the identification of a new locality of occurrence of Xiphopenaeus sp. II in the Brazilian coast, Caravelas, indicating that the species distribution may be continuous on the coast, and not disjoint as observed so far.     

The fitness of the Brazilian damsel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stegastes fuscus</Emphasis> is increased by sharing the territory with the dusky grouper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epinephelus marginatus</Emphasis>

Stegastes fuscus and Epinephelus marginatus are known for co-habiting shelters. The damselfish S. fuscus uses the territory for nesting and must protect its eggs from grazers; the grouper E. marginatus is an omnivorous sit-and-wait predator. This study aims to evaluate the effect of juvenile groupers on the reproductive success of the Brazilian damsel. Twenty-five hours of underwater observations were done in São Sebastião and Ilhabela, Northern shore of São Paulo, Brazil. Fitness increase was measured by the egg-clutch area and number of contributing females in 130 nests shared by groupers and another 130 where damselfishes stood alone. An egg predator crab was placed into the damselfish territory, and behavioural responses during 2 min were recorded for nests with or without E. marginatus, 80 replicates each. Nests shared by the dusky groupers had more eggs and received eggs from more females too. While fathers who were alone in the territory had to deal with the egg predator crab, in shared nests, the grouper would take care of the intruder, sometimes feeding on it. Therefore, the Brazilian damsel may benefit from the presence of the dusky grouper by increasing the fitness and diminishing the costs of parental care.     

Isolation and characterization of DNA microsatellite primers for Cynoscion acoupa,the most exploited sciaenid fish along the coast of Brazil

The northern mangrove coast of Brazil comprises the Brazilian states of Amapá, Pará and Maranhão. Fishes from the coastal mangrove region form a principal component of the local fishery, and account for 58% of all fish landed. The most commonly landed fishes are those of the family Sciaenidae. Cynoscion acoupa is one of the most exploited sciaenid species, with over 600 tons landed each year. Therefore, we developed 17 microsatellite markers to investigate genetic variability and population structuring of this species along the coast of Brazil.     

The Brazilian seagrasses

Based on a critical review of the literature, and on abundant material recently collected along the coast of Brazil, a synthesis of the occurrence and distribution of the Brazilian species of seagrasses is presented. Two species of Hydrocharitaceae, namely Halophila baillonii Aschers. and H. decipiens Ostenf., and three species of Potomogetonaceae, Halodule emarginata den Hartog, H. wrightii Aschers. and Ruppia maritima L. s.s., were found. Ruppia maritima was found all along the Brazilian coast, from about 3 to 32°S latitude, in brackish water ponds and lakes, with salinities varying from 0.3 to 28?.. The other species are restricted to normal seawater ($\text{±35?.}$), although Halodule wrightii was also found in hypersaline waters (45?.). This last species is the most common seagrass in Brazil. The species of Halophila are restricted to warmer waters and were not found further south than Rio de Janeiro State, being especially common on the NE coast at depths down to 62 m. During the course of these studies, Halophila baillonii was found for the second time in Brazil since its original collection in 1888. A critical comparison of a large number of plants leads us to the conclusion that Halodule brasiliensis Lipkin cannot be distinguished from H. wrightii, and H. lilianae den Hartog cannot be distinguished from H. emarginata. Reproductive structures of H. emarginata are described for the first time.     

Patagonian grouper Acanthistius patachonicus (Jenyns, 1840) forms massive spawning aggregations in the Southwest Atlantic

Here we describe massive spawning aggregations and seasonal changes in the large-scale distribution of the Patagonian grouper Acanthistius patachonicus in the Southwest Atlantic based on three sources of information: (a) data from bottom trawl research surveys covering the distributional range of the species within the Argentine continental shelf; (b) folk ecological knowledge gathered from experienced captains of the Argentine industrial trawl fisheries; and (c) sampling of an artisanal trap fishery targeting the Patagonian grouper in a specific location off the coast of Buenos Aires Province. The trawl surveys showed a general pattern of aggregation of Patagonian grouper towards the coast during the reproductive period (September–December). Captains described massive aggregations of the species at specific near-shore locations, where trawl catches of up to 15 t in a single haul were registered during the reproductive season. At a local scale, the artisanal trap fishery described operates exclusively during the reproductive period, targeting near-shore aggregations with a high proportion of individuals releasing gametes onboard. These three sources of information provide evidence of the existence of massive transient spawning aggregations of Patagonian grouper in the Argentine shelf. This is the first report of a reef fish spawning aggregation in the southern region of the Southwest Atlantic. Anecdotal information gathered in this study points to the depletion of many of the aggregations targeted during the 1980s and 1990s by the industrial fleet. At the same time, the spawning aggregation site off Buenos Aires Province has been productive for the last 34 years, being exploited exclusively by traps. The Patagonian grouper is classified as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, which highlights the need for further research to determine its stock status. Mapping its current spawning aggregations should be a priority to inform the design of a targeted monitoring program and management plan for this species.     

The extent of asexual reproduction in sponges of the genus Chondrilla (Demospongiae: Chondrosida) from the Caribbean and the Brazilian coasts

In this study, we estimated the extent of asexual reproduction and genotypic diversity at the intra- and interspecific levels in sponges of the genus Chondrilla in the Caribbean and along the coast of Brazil. Allozymes were used to identify the genotypes of specimens of Chondrilla in each location. The four species studied displayed a large variation in the extent of clonal reproduction and genotypic diversity, with the two species from the Bahamas having a greater proportion of asexually produced individuals than those along the coast of Brazil. Conspecific Brazilian populations of Chondrilla sp. had large differences in clonality: the population from a heterogeneous environment and under the influence of a strong upwelling had little clonality (7%), whereas the population located 350 km south along the coast, in a more homogeneous and temporally stable environment, had a five-fold larger (39%) proportion of asexually derived individuals. Finally, we were able to confirm that, besides fission, the genus Chondrilla displays a second mode of asexual reproduction, by fragmentation of teardrop shaped individuals.     

Stranding Events of Kogia Whales along the Brazilian Coast

The genus Kogia, which comprises only two extant species, Kogia sima and Kogia breviceps, represents one of the least known groups of cetaceans in the global ocean. In some coastal regions, however, stranding events of these species have been relatively common over the last decades. Stranding provides the opportunity to investigate the biology of these cetaceans and to explore the epidemiological aspects associated with the mortality of the organisms found on the beach. A number of disturbances (including pelagic fisheries, chemical pollution, boat strikes, and noise pollution) have been confirmed to pose a particular threat to the Kogia species. However, no study has yet investigated potential relationships between environmental conditions and stranding events. Here we analyse how a collection of environmental, physical, and biological variables, such as wind, sea surface temperature (SST), water depth, and chlorophyll-a, correlate to Kogia stranding events along the Brazilian coast. The results of our statistical analyses suggest that K. sima is more likely found in warm tropical waters, which provide an explanation for the high frequency of stranding in northeastern Brazilian coast. In contrast, K. breviceps appears to have a preference for temperate and productive waters. Wind speed results to be also an important factor for predicting Kogia strandings in Brazilian coast. Additionally, literature information in combination with our own data and analyses of stomach contents confirms that oceanic cephalopods constitute the primary nutritional source of both Kogia species. By using the available information as a qualitative proxy for habitat preference and feeding ecology, our study provides a novel and comprehensive assessment of Kogia stranding data in relation to environmental conditions along the Brazilian coast.     

Acoustic telemetry survey of the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) in the Marine Reserve of Cerbère-Banyuls: informations on the territoriality of this emblematic species

The Marine Reserve of Cerbère-Banyuls represents a refuge for dusky grouper populations (Epinephelus marginatus). Density survey and observation of the reproductive behavior of this species have been conducted there for the last 30 years. However, information on the behavior or habitat utilization for this species during winter time is limited. We conducted acoustic telemetry surveys from September 2005 to June 2006 in the Marine Reserve of Cerbère-Banyuls for a dusky grouper population. Six groupers were tagged and followed within the integral reserve and in the adjacent partial reserve. The results from the tracking of these individuals indicated that the largest dusky groupers are sedentary fishes with a high degree of site fidelity and a high sensitivity to variations of environmental conditions such as storms. This together with the life history characteristics of this species encourages the conservation and the protection of essential habitats of this species. Acoustic tracking coupled to the use of a fixed Kernel can be proposed to follow fish populations. To cite this article: J. Pastor et al., C. R. Biologies 332 (2009).     

Local Ecological Knowledge and Scientific Data Reveal Overexploitation by Multigear Artisanal Fisheries in the Southwestern Atlantic

In the last decades, a number of studies based on historical records revealed the diversity loss in the oceans and human-induced changes to marine ecosystems. These studies have improved our understanding of the human impacts in the oceans. They also drew attention to the shifting baseline syndrome and the importance of assessing appropriate sources of data in order to build the most reliable environmental baseline. Here we amassed information from artisanal fishermen''s local ecological knowledge, fisheries landing data and underwater visual census to assess the decline of fish species in Southeastern Brazil. Interviews with 214 fishermen from line, beach seine and spearfishing revealed a sharp decline in abundance of the bluefish Pomatomus saltatrix, the groupers Epinephelus marginatus, Mycteroperca acutirostris, M. bonaci and M. microlepis, and large parrotfishes in the past six decades. Fisheries landing data from a 16-year period support the decline of bluefish as pointed by fishermen''s local knowledge, while underwater visual census campaigns show reductions in groupers'' abundance and a sharp population decline of the Brazilian endemic parrotfish Scarus trispinosus. Despite the marked decline of these fisheries, younger and less experienced fishermen recognized fewer species as overexploited and fishing sites as depleted than older and more experienced fishermen, indicating the occurrence of the shifting baseline syndrome. Here we show both the decline of multigear fisheries catches – combining anecdotal and scientific data – as well as changes in environmental perceptions over generations of fishermen. Managing ocean resources requires looking into the past, and into traditional knowledge, bringing historical baselines to the present and improving public awareness.     

A wireless communication system for determining site fidelity of juvenile dusky groupers Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834) using coded acoustic transmitters

The value of marine reserves to protect threatened and vulnerable species, such as the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus), is often uncertain because of a lack of knowledge about their ecology and habitat utilisation. To address this issue, a Wireless Communication System for location-based positioning of fish tagged with coded acoustic transmitters was installed to determine site fidelity of juvenile dusky groupers (mean total length = 30.4 cm, range: 20.5–40.0 cm; mean total weight = 470 g, range: 113–950 g) within a marine reserve (Island of Ustica, Sicily, Italy). The system was based on five wireless hydrophones distributed approximately 200 m apart along the coastline of the reserve, each monitoring acoustic signals from transmitters within a reception cell. The hydrophones retransmitted detected signals as a radio signal to a land-based receiver and data logger. Unique identifiers for each hydrophone permitted the identification of the detection cell containing the tagged fish. The wireless hydrophones had partly overlapping detection ranges, dividing the marine reserve into more than five different detection cells. The average detection range was 232 m, but coverage varied from site to site and with time, depending on many factors, such as ambient noise, wave action and signal strength of the transmitters. Despite some limitations, the Wireless Hydrophone System (WHS) combined with manual tracking provided a valuable tool for investigating site fidelity in the dusky grouper. Preliminary home ranges for the fish were estimated by the kernel method (probability level of 95%), based on a limited set of manual tracking data, to be a median 5312 m² (range 1673–18626 m²).     

Reproductive biology and management of two commercially important groupers in the SW Atlantic

The reproductive biology of Epinephelus morio (red grouper) and Mycteroperca bonaci (black grouper) were evaluated based on 533 specimens collected from artisanal fisheries landings in the Abrolhos Bank, Brazil, between May 2005 and September 2012. Sex ratio for the black grouper was 1:14 (n = 155 females and 11 males; 26.1–147 cm TL) and 1:10 for the red grouper (n = 334 females and 33 males; 15.0–96.0 cm TL). For both species, highest values of the gonadosomatic index (GSI) for females were recorded between July and October, indicating spawning during the austral winter. The length at first maturity (L₅₀) for females was estimated at 62.0 and 47.0 cm TL for the black and red grouper, respectively. Batch fecundity based on TL and TW ranged from 2 to 15.4^?10⁶ and 1.5 to 13.7^?10⁶ for the black and red grouper, respectively. Interviews with experienced fishers revealed that spawning seasons of both groupers are largely unrecognized. Results demonstrate a positive relationship between GSI peaks, lower temperatures and stronger winds. The information provided herein may help decision-making regarding fisheries management and conservation for E. morio and M. bonaci at various levels of governance in the Abrolhos Bank, the region with the largest and richest coralline reefs in the South Atlantic.     

Assessment of genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship among grouper species Epinephelus spp. from the Saudi waters of the Arabian Gulf

Understanding of fish genetic characterization plays a vital role in the conservation and utilization of fish genetic resources of grouper species. The present study was carried out to assess the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships in five grouper species, Epinephelus spp. from eastern Saudi Arabian coast using two molecular marker systems, inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and microsatellite (SSR) markers. In total, 219 individuals grouper specimens (Epinephelus tauvina, E. coioides, E. bleekeri, E. malabaricus, and E. areolatus) were genotyped with 10 ISSR and 11 SSR selected primers. The ISSR produced 94 DNA fragments, of which 44 were polymorphic with an average of 2.13 fragment per primer. While SSR primers generated 107 alleles, all of them were polymorphic with an average 9.72 per primer. ISSR and SSR techniques demonstrated a high level of gene diversity and genetic distances illustrated by UPGMA dendrograms among the grouper species. The results proved that the SSR markers were highly informative and efficient in detecting genetic variability and relationships of the Epinephelus spp.