Ethnobotanical notes about some uses of medicinal plants in Alto Tirreno Cosentino area (Calabria, Southern Italy)

The present zootherapeutic study describes the traditional knowledge related to the use of different animals and animal-derived products as medicines by the Saharia tribe reside in the Shahabad and Kishanganj Panchayat Samiti's of Baran district of Rajasthan, India. A field survey was conducted from April to June 2006 by performing interview through structured questionnaire with 21 selected respondents, who provided information regarding use of animals and their products in folk medicine. A total of 15 animal species were recorded and they are used for different ethnomedical purposes, including cough, asthma, tuberculosis, paralysis, earache, herpes, weakness, muscular pain etc. The zootherapeutic knowledge was mostly based on domestic animals, but some protected species like the peacock (Pavo cristatus,), hard shelled turtle (Kachuga tentoria), sambhar (Cervus unicolor) were also mentioned as medicinal resources. We would suggest that this kind of neglected traditional knowledge should be included into the strategies of conservation and management of faunistic resources. Further studies are required for experimental validation to confirm the presence of bioactive compounds in these traditional remedies and also to emphasize more sustainable use of these resources.     

Study on Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants Used by the Mongolians in Xilingol Typical Steppe Area*

The local herdsmen were served as informants, methods of interviews and voucher specimen collection and identification have been used to conduct ethnobotanical field investigations on wild edible plants in the Xilingol typical steppe area, Inner Mongolia. The results show that 29 species and two varieties of wild plants used for food and drinks by the Mongolians in Xilingol typical steppe area. The edible parts of the plants are whole plant, aerial parts, roots, stems, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits or/and seeds respectively. Among them, the leaf is the most widely used part. Six categories of food uses based on the mode of folk edible use were established to classify wild food plants, including wild grain, vegetables, fruit, substitute for tea, seasoning, and snacks. Among them, vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used as substitute for tea, and plants used for seasoning. Wild plants are usually eaten raw or cooked by the local people. Raw materials and prepared food from wild plants are preserved through the method of pickling and drying. A distinguishing feature of region and ethnic group is that mutton, beef, fresh milk and yoghourt are necessarily used in cooking dish and making milk tea from wild plants by local Mongolians.     

The faunal drugstore: Animal-based remedies used in traditional medicines in Latin America

Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies made from animals and their products. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on this phenomenon has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. This review discusses some related aspects of the use of animal-based remedies in Latin America, identifies those species used as folk remedies, and discusses the implications of zootherapy for public health and biological conservation. The review of literature revealed that at least 584 animal species, distributed in 13 taxonomic categories, have been used in traditional medicine in region. The number of medicinal species catalogued was quite expansive and demonstrates the importance of zootherapy as an alternative mode of therapy in Latin America. Nevertheless, this number is certainly underestimated since the number of studies on the theme are very limited. Animals provide the raw materials for remedies prescribed clinically and are also used in the form of amulets and charms in magic-religious rituals and ceremonies. Zootherapeutic resources were used to treat different diseases. The medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Besides being influenced by cultural aspects, the relations between humans and biodiversity in the form of zootherapeutic practices are conditioned by the social and economic relations between humans themselves. Further ethnopharmacological studies are necessary to increase our understanding of the links between traditional uses of faunistic resources and conservation biology, public health policies, sustainable management of natural resources and bio-prospecting.     

Therapeutic and prophylactic uses of invertebrates in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine

Zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinary medicine are important in many socio-cultural environments around the world, particularly in developing countries, and they have recently started to be inventoried and studied in Europe. In light of this, the purpose of this review is to describe the local knowledge and folk remedies based on the use of invertebrates and their derivative products in contemporary Spanish ethnoveterinary medicine. An overview in the fields of ethnozoology, ethnoveterinary medicine and folklore was made. Automated searches in the most important databases were performed. All related works were examined thoroughly and use-reports were obtained from 53 documentary sources. The traditional use of 18 invertebrate species and five ethnotaxa and a total of 86 empirical remedies based on the use of a single species was recorded. The two most relevant zoological groups were found to be insects and molluscs. A broad diversity of body parts or derivative products have been and are used to treat or prevent ca. 50 animal diseases or conditions, in particular diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, different infectious livestock diseases, and disorders of the eye and adnexa. Cattle, sheep and equines form the group of domestic animals in which the greatest number of remedies are mentioned. In addition, seven magical remedies and practices are documented. In comparison with other culturally related areas, this is a rich heritage. The use-reports included here will help in the search for new and low-cost drugs for treating livestock and alternative materials for pharmaceutical purposes, future research addressing the validation of the effects and the development of organic farming.     

Perception,Price and Preference: Consumption and Protection of Wild Animals Used in Traditional Medicine

A wide array of wildlife species, including many animals, are used in traditional medicines across many medicinal systems, including in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Due to over-exploitation and habitat loss, the populations of many animals commonly used in TCM have declined and are unable to meet market demand. A number of measures have been taken to try to reduce the impact that this large and growing market for TCM may have on wild animal species. Consumer preferences and behavior are known to play an important role in the consumption and protection of wild animals used in traditional medicine, and thus are likely to be an important factor in the success of many of these mechanisms—particularly given the significant percentage of TCMs that are over-the-counter products (access to which is not mediated by practitioners). In this study we conducted questionnaires and designed stated preference experiments embodying different simulation scenarios using a random sample of the population in Beijing to elicit individuals’ knowledge, perceptions and preferences toward wild or farmed animal materials and their substitutes used in traditional Chinese medicine. We found that respondents had a stated preference for wild materials over farm-raised and other alternatives because they believe that the effectiveness of wild-sourced materials is more credible than that of other sources. However, we also found that, although respondents used TCM products, they had a poor understanding of the function or composition of either traditional Chinese medicines or proprietary Chinese medicines (PCM), and paid little attention to the composition of products when making purchasing decisions. Furthermore, awareness of the need for species protection, or “conservation consciousness” was found to play an important role in willingness to accept substitutions for wild animal materials, while traditional animal medicinal materials (TAMs) derived from well-known endangered species, such as bear bile and tiger bone, show relatively higher substitutability. These results suggest that there is still hope for conservation measures which seek to promote a transition to farmed animal, plant and synthetic ingredients and provide clear directions for future social marketing, education and engagement efforts.     

“野生动物”的概念框架和术语定义

“野生动物”(wild animal)一词不止在我国, 在全球的英语使用者中也有不同的含义。通过梳理相关研究、国内法和国际法背景下的定义和适用范围, 结合人类对动物繁殖和生活条件的控制情况, 本文提出了“野生动物”的二维概念框架, 梳理了动物从“野生”到“驯化”的12个连续状态。以下状态即未经中长期人工选择的动物类群应被视为野生动物: (1)其在荒野自然或人工环境(如城市或乡村)中自由生存繁殖, 无论是否存在人工投喂、经救护或辅助生殖后被放归的个体; (2)被捕捉圈养在人工环境中生活, 或源自野外但在圈养条件下出生的个体; (3)直系血亲(《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》解释为世系前四代)仍有野外来源的人工繁育后代; (4)放生、逃逸或引入到自然环境中的人工繁育个体。在野生动物物种保护的目标和语境之下, 经过长期人工选择的驯化动物, 无论其是否在人类控制下生活, 如家养猫狗、家禽家畜或模式实验动物, 以及流浪猫狗、放生禽畜和野化家养动物等都不是“野生动物”。但对于一些经过一定程度的人工选择, 所处人类控制情况和对野外种群的影响各异(如经过多代人工繁育的驯养动物、因人类活动导致的外来动物等), 其是否需被作为野生动物管理, 则需要根据生态安全、物种管理、立法目标等特别设定监管范围。《中华人民共和国野生动物保护法》的保护对象可以考虑为: 受到人类威胁濒临灭绝的, 或者具有重要生态作用的野生动物物种, 其状态可不限于是在野外还是人工控制条件下。其他动物的管理, 可根据遗传资源保护、疫病防控、动物福利和生态安全等需要, 另外设立《动物福利法》《生物安全法》等, 并和已有的法律法规如《动物防疫法》《渔业法》等做好衔接。本文还就《野生动物保护法》可能采用的“野生动物”定义提出建议。     

Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongol herdsmen in inner mongolia

Arhorchin Mongol herdsmen are one of the tribal and regional groups of the Mongol nationality still engaged in traditional animal husbandry in the grassland areas of eastern Inner Mongolia at present. There are 77 species of wild plants used in their diet. An ethnobotanical inventory is presented, which includes the botanical names, folk names, parts used, usage, and the numbers of voucher specimens. Distinctive national features of the use of wild plants in their diet are expressed in the aspects that the Arhorchin Mongol herdsmen integrate to wild plants with their traditional diet and bromatherapy. Traditional usage may be used to exploit patterns of wild food plants in grassland areas.     

The roles and values of wild foods in agricultural systems

Almost every ecosystem has been amended so that plants and animals can be used as food, fibre, fodder, medicines, traps and weapons. Historically, wild plants and animals were sole dietary components for hunter–gatherer and forager cultures. Today, they remain key to many agricultural communities. The mean use of wild foods by agricultural and forager communities in 22 countries of Asia and Africa (36 studies) is 90–100 species per location. Aggregate country estimates can reach 300–800 species (e.g. India, Ethiopia, Kenya). The mean use of wild species is 120 per community for indigenous communities in both industrialized and developing countries. Many of these wild foods are actively managed, suggesting there is a false dichotomy around ideas of the agricultural and the wild: hunter–gatherers and foragers farm and manage their environments, and cultivators use many wild plants and animals. Yet, provision of and access to these sources of food may be declining as natural habitats come under increasing pressure from development, conservation-exclusions and agricultural expansion. Despite their value, wild foods are excluded from official statistics on economic values of natural resources. It is clear that wild plants and animals continue to form a significant proportion of the global food basket, and while a variety of social and ecological drivers are acting to reduce wild food use, their importance may be set to grow as pressures on agricultural productivity increase.     

American palm ethnomedicine: A meta-analysis

Background

Animal-based remedies constitute an integral part of Brazilian Traditional Medicine. Due to its long history, zootherapy has in fact become an integral part of folk medicine both in rural and urban areas of the country. In this paper we summarize current knowledge on zootherapeutic practices in Northeast of Brazil, based on information compiled from ethnobiological scientific literature.

Methods

In order to examine the diversity of animals used in traditional medicine in Northeast of Brazil, all available references or reports of folk remedies based on animals sources were examined. 34 sources were analyzed. Only taxa that could be identified to species level were included in assessment of medicinal animal species. Scientific names provided in publications were updated.

Results

The review revealed that at least 250 animal species (178 vertebrates and 72 invertebrates) are used for medicinal purposes in Northeast of Brazil. The inventoried species comprise 10 taxonomic categories and belong to 141 Families. The groups with the greatest number of species were fishes (n = 58), mammals (n = 47) and reptiles (n = 37). The zootherapeutical products are used for the treatment of different illnesses. The most widely treated condition were asthma, rheumatism and sore throat, conditions, which had a wide variety of animals to treat them with. Many animals were used for the treatment of multiple ailments. Beyond the use for treating human diseases, zootherapeutical resources are also used in ethnoveterinary medicine

Conclusion

The number of medicinal species catalogued was quite expressive and demonstrate the importance of zootherapy as alternative therapeutic in Northeast of Brazil. Although widely diffused throughout Brazil, zootherapeutic practices remain virtually unstudied. There is an urgent need to examine the ecological, cultural, social, and public health implications associated with fauna usage, including a full inventory of the animal species used for medicinal purposes and the socio-cultural context associated with their consumption.     

Unrecorded Ethnomedicinal Uses of Biodiversity from Tadgarh-Raoli Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India

The World Health Organization(WHO)estimatesthat as manyas80%of the world′s populationrely pri-marily on plant and animal-based medicines.Amongthe252essential chemicals that have been selected bythe World Health Organization,11.1%comefrompla-nts,and8.7%fr…     

Plant folk medicines among the nicobarese of Katchal Island,India

This paper deals with the plant folk medicines among Nicobarese aboriginals of Katchal Island, in the Nicobar group, India. The tribals, living in complete geographical isolation, have been using folk medicines from time immemorial. Data on 65 plant species were gathered from experienced old men and women. Therapeutic applications and manner of using are initially documented and described as plant remedies in folkloric tradition and popular domestic medicine. No chemical principles are identified; no putative herbal remedies are pharmaceutically and medically evaluated. A brief account of the geography of the islands, climate, ethnology, and methodology of the present work is given. Vernacular name(s) of the plants in the Nicobarese language are incorporated for the first time in literature.     

The feeding habits of wolves in relation to large prey availability in northern Italy

We investigated wolf feeding habits in relation to the abundance of wild and domestic ungulates to test the hypothesis that large prey are preferred and that their abundance affects the use of other food categories and diet breadth. We determined diet composition by scat analysis from December 1987 to December 1992. The research was carried out in three study areas located in northern Italy and characterised by marked differences in wild and domestic ungulate abundance. In study area A (low wild and domestic ungulate availability) fruits, livestock, other vertebrates and wild ungulates made up the bulk of the diet (71% in volume). In area B (high availability of livestock) wolf diet was mainly based on sheep and wild boars (80% in volume). In study area C (high availability of wild ungulates) wild ungulates were the main food of wolves (90% in volume). Significant differences were found among study areas in the mean percentage volume of all food categories and in particular for wild ungulates, livestock, other vertebrates and fruits (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Diet breadth decreased in areas with high availability of large wild and domestic herbivores. The use of livestock species was lower where there was high abundance, richness and diversity of the wild ungulate guild. Selection for wild ungulate species was partially affected by their abundance: however other factors as prey social behaviour, adaptability to the habitat (for introduced species), and body size could have an important role in species selection by wolves. In particular in area C wild boars were selected for, roe and red deers avoided, and fallow deers and mouflons used as available. Livestock species were used in relation to their abundance and accessibility, in particular sheep were selected for and cattle avoided; but if calves bom in the pastures were considered as the only available cattle, they were selected for and sheep were used as available. Large and in particular wild herbivores were found to be of great importance for the wolf population maintenance in northern Italy, one of the most important recovery areas of Mediterranean wolves.     

An Ethnobotanical survey of the beypazari, ayas, and Güdül district towns of Ankara Province (Turkey)

Dietary, therapeutical, and other ethnobotanical uses of the wild plants grown in the Beypazari, Aya§, and Güdül district towns of Ankara were investigated. Information was collected by oral interviews, with 400 individuals participating in 25 selected sites. The demographic characteristics of the informants were cross-linked with the recorded plant data for purposes of statistical analysis by SPSS software. The results indicated that 82% of the informants recognized the use of wild plants for food and home remedies. Both the breadth and scope of knowledge on the use of wild plants increased significantly with the advancing age of the informants, but there was no significant correlation between the knowledge of the informants and their educational status. Altogether, the authors recorded 192 uses for wild plants in the surveyed area; these emanating from 85 plant species belonging to 31 plant families. Among the most popular uses for wild plants were for medicines (115 citations) or food (70 citations). Only 7 plants fell in the miscellaneous category.     

The US FDA and animal cloning: risk and regulatory approach

The Food and Drug Administration's (FDA's) Center for Veterinary Medicine issued a voluntary request to producers of livestock clones not to introduce food from clones or their progeny into commerce until the agency had assessed whether production of cattle, swine, sheep, or goats by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) posed any unique risks to the animal(s) involved in the process, humans, or other animals by consuming food from those animals, compared with any other assisted reproductive technology (ART) currently in use. Following a comprehensive review, no anomalies were observed in animals produced by cloning that have not also been observed in animals produced by other ARTs and natural mating. Further systematic review on the health of, and composition of meat and milk from, cattle, swine, and goat clones and the progeny of cattle and sheep did not result in the identification of any food-consumption hazards. The agency therefore concluded that food from cattle, swine, and goat clones was as safe to eat as food from animals of those species derived by conventional means. The agency also concluded that food from the progeny of the clone of any species normally consumed for food is as safe to eat as those animals. The article also describes the methodology used by the agency to analyze data and draw these conclusions, the plans the agency has proposed to manage any identified risks, and the risk communication approaches the agency has used.     

The Use of Insects in Folk Medicine in the State of Bahia, Northeastern Brazil, with Notes on Insects Reported Elsewhere in Brazilian Folk Medicine

At least 42 insects have been reported as used in folk medicine in the state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil. These resources are distributed in nine orders, with Hymenopterans the most prevalent with 22 specimens. Medicinal insects, which are used live, cooked, ground, in infusions, in plasters, or as ointments, provide honey, nests, eggs, cocoons, sting, wax, and parts of their bodies for the elaboration of folk remedies to treat a great variety of locally diagnosed ailments. Most of the folk remedies are administered in the form of teas made using the powder produced by grinding the toasted or scraped part of the body of the insects or the whole toasted animal. Traditional knowledge concerning entomotherapy in the state of Bahia is very important since folk medicine is still one of the most important resources for discovery of unknown natural drug resources.     

The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests

People have hunted mammals in tropical Asian forests for at least 40,000 yr. This period has seen one confirmed global extinction (the giant pangolin, Manis palaeojavanica ) and range restrictions for several large mammals, but there is no strong evidence for unsustainable hunting pressure until the last 2000–3000 yr, when elephants, rhinoceroses, and several other species were progressively eliminated from the large parts of their ranges. Regional declines in most species have occurred largely within the last 50 yr. Recent subsistence hunting has typically focused on pigs and deer (hunted with dogs and spears or with snares), monkeys and other arboreal mammals (often caught with blowpipes), and porcupines and other rodents (smoked or dug out of burrows). Over the last 50 yr, the importance of hunting for subsistence has been increasingly outweighed by hunting for the market. The hunted biomass is dominated by the same species as before, sold mostly for local consumption, but numerous additional species are targeted for the colossal regional trade in wild animals and their parts for food, medicines, raw materials, and pets. Many populations of mammalian dispersers of large seeds and understory browsers have been depleted or eliminated, while seed predators have had a more variable fate. Most of this hunting is now illegal, but the law enforcement is generally weak. However, examples of successful enforcement show that hunting impacts can be greatly reduced where there is sufficient political will. Ending the trade in wild animals and their parts should have the highest regional conservation priority.     

Primates in traditional folk medicine: a world overview

• 1 Almost 50% of primate species are in danger of becoming extinct, according to the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. This is partly because of their consumption by humans. The reasons for hunting vary by region. One pretext is the medicinal or magical value of products derived from these animals.
• 2 In this paper, we provide an overview of the global use of primates in traditional folk medicines as well as identifying the species used as remedies associated with folk beliefs. Some important questions relating to the conservation of primates are addressed.
• 3 Our results revealed that at least 101 species of primates, which belong to 38 genera and 10 families, were used in traditional folk practices and in magic–religious rituals throughout the world.
• 4 Of the 101 species of primates recorded in our review, 12 species were classified as Critically Endangered, 23 as Endangered, 22 as Vulnerable, seven as Near Threatened, 36 as Least Concern and one as Data Deficient in the IUCN Red List. All species were also included in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Appendices I or II, although the reasons for their inclusion were not necessarily related to their medicinal use.
• 5 The widespread utilization of primates in traditional medicine is evidence of the importance of understanding such uses in the context of primate conservation as well as the need for considering socio‐cultural factors when establishing management plans concerning the sustainable use of these mammals.

     

Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies in three districts of the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan

Background

Ethnoveterinary knowledge is highly significant for persistence of traditional community-based approaches to veterinary care. This is of particular importance in the context of developing and emerging countries, where animal health (that of livestock, especially) is crucial to local economies and food security. The current survey documents the traditional veterinary uses of medicinal plants in the Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan.

Methods

Data were collected through interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and by administering questionnaires. A total of 105 informants aged between 20–75 years old who were familiar with livestock health issues (i.e. farmers, shepherds, housewives and herbalists) participated in the study.

Results

A total of 89 botanical taxa, belonging to 46 families, were reported to have ethnoveterinary applications. The most quoted families were Poaceae (6 taxa), Fabaceae (6), Asteraceae (5), and Polygonaceae (5). Adhatoda vasica was the most cited species (43%), followed by Trachyspermum ammi (37%), and Zanthoxylum armatum var. armatum (36%). About 126 medications were recorded against more than 50 veterinary conditions grouped into seven categories. The highest cultural index values were recorded for Trachyspermum ammi, Curcuma longa, Melia azedarach, Zanthoxylum armatum var. armatum and Adhatoda vasica. The highest informant consensus factor was found for pathologies related to respiratory and reproductive disorders. Comparison with the local plant-based remedies used in human folk medicine revealed that many of remedies were used in similar ways in local human phytotherapy. Comparison with other field surveys conducted in surrounding areas demonstrated that approximately one-half of the recorded plants uses are novel to the ethnoveterinary literature of the Himalayas.

Conclusion

The current survey shows a remarkable resilience of ethnoveterinary botanical knowledge in the study area. Most of the species reported for ethnoveterinary applications are wild and under threat. Thus, not only is it imperative to conserve traditional local knowledge of folk veterinary therapies for bio-cultural conservation motives, but also to assist with in-situ and ex-situ environmental conservation initiatives, which are urgently needed. Future studies that focus on the validation of efficacy of these ethnoveterinary remedies can help to substantiate emic concepts regarding the management of animal health care and for rural development programs.

     

Dietary composition of wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) kongoni (Alcephalus buselaphus) and cattle (Bos indicus), grazing on a common ranch in south-central Kenya

This paper gives the results of a study conducted at Game Ranching Ltd, situated at the Athi Kapiti Plains, Kenya, to determine the dietary composition of cattle (Bos indicus L), kongoni (Alcephalus buselaphus Pallas) and wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus Burchell), through two forage growing seasons (wet and dry). The dietary preferences and overlaps between the species were also determined. The diet preference of the three herbivores was determined using a microhistological analysis technique. The three dominant grasses in the ranch: Themeda triandra Fork, Digitaria macroblephara (Hack.) Stapf and Penisetum mezianum Leeke, formed the major diets of the animals. The browse component of the diets increased during the dry season by about 100% for all the animal species, with cattle always having twice as much browse as the wild herbivores. However, the animals selected similar diets in terms of plant species during both seasons but were more selective during the wet season. Dietary overlaps were always above 75%, but more than this during the dry season. The dietary overlaps were lower between cattle and wild herbivores than between the wild herbivores. The diet preference index for the animals differed from season to season, and from plant to plant.     

Wild foods from Southern Ecuador

This study documents 354 species of wild edible plants consumed in southern Ecuador, an area with a very high species diversity. Southern Ecuador is inhabited by Mestizo farmers and by small communities of indigenous Shuar and Saraguros. The majority (85%) of the 354 species have edible fruits. Various regional food and drink preparations in which wild plants are used are described. Most (86%), however, are consumed raw. Thirtyeight percent have additional uses, primarily as fuelwood and timber. The fruits or other edible parts of 21 species are sold at local and regional markets. Three new species were discovered during this study.