Highly variable male courtship behavioral sequences in a crambid moth

Research on male courtship behavior of moths has focused on documenting stereotyped sequences for successful copulation. We characterized successful male courtship behavior among 126 virgin mating pairs of Ostrinia nubilalis. Using Markov analysis, stereotypy indices, and a novel application of ecological network analysis, we found high variability in these sequences. Fifteen courtship behaviors were described and 96 behavioral transitions were observed, 39 of which occurred only once. The number of courtship bouts ranged from one to ten, the number of behavioral transitions ranged from four to 41, and the number of copulation attempts ranged from one to 29. Only 23% of males used a common, simple behavioral sequence. Females exhibited acceptance or rejection behaviors in 40% of the sequences, but these did not explain the high variability in male courtship sequences. About half of the transitions occurred non-randomly, and stereotypy was low. Network analysis revealed that the courtship sequences started and ended with stereotyped behaviors and the high variability occurred in the middle of the sequences. Whole system analysis showed that the courtship sequences were more variable than for optimal transfer of information. Overall, these results suggest that the sequence of behaviors may be less important than the occurrence of certain behavioral elements for successful mating.     

Factors influencing the behaviour of Irrawaddy dolphins <Emphasis Type="Italic">Orcaella brevirostris</Emphasis> (Owen in Gray, 1866) in Brunei Bay,Malaysia

The population of Irrawaddy dolphins in Brunei Bay, Malaysia is little studied. This study aimed at contributing information on how abiotic and other factors influence different aspects of their behaviour displayed at the water surface. Several behaviours, i.e. foraging, travelling, foraging behind trawler, milling and socializing were observed during boat-based line transect surveys (2013–2016). The behaviours of individuals and groups were filmed or noted, and the abiotic factors of the habitat were registered at the same time. The number of “travelling” individuals was negatively correlated with surface water salinity (p value?=?0.04) and positively correlated with turbidity (p value?=?0.01). Fisher’s exact test also revealed that the behaviours of dolphin groups significantly differed with the ranges of several abiotic factors, i.e. foraging behind trawler with depth (p value?=?0.001), travelling with surface water salinity (p value?=?0.05), travelling and foraging behind trawler with turbidity (p value?=?0.04, 0.01). The results for foraging behind trawler differed significantly between the groups with calves and those without calves (χ² test, p value?=?0.04), where groups with calves were less likely to forage behind trawlers. Significant differences were observed among group sizes for travelling, milling and socializing (χ² test, p value?<?0.05), with large groups (11–20 individuals) more frequently foraging, milling and socializing, compared to smaller ones. The current study is the first behavioural observation for Irrawaddy dolphins in Brunei Bay and these findings will help researchers, conservationists, local marine park managers and policy makers in developing effective conservation and management plans for the area.     

Courtship in Two Morphotypes of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anastrepha fraterculus</Emphasis> (Diptera: Tephritidae) Cryptic Species Complex and their Implications for Understanding Mate Recognition

Ritualized courtship behaviors are used to recognize potential mates and behavioral patterns are inevitably different among populations that demonstrate reproductive incompatibility. We characterized and compared the courtship behaviors of two morphotypes of the cryptic species complex Anastrepha fraterculus: Brazil-1 morphotype and Brazil-3 morphotype. Courtship behaviors were filmed to analyze the behavioral sequences of these two morphotypes during homotypic crossings. The behavioral units Alignment (AL) and Abdominal movements (AB and AB-call) were newly recognized in the courtship ethogram of Anastrepha fraterculus males. The two morphotypes show distinct behavioral sequences leading up to copulation. Some behaviors were repeated frequently during the courtship process, while others were more restricted to the final moments of courtship. The three behavioral units that contributed most to copulation success were Contact, Alignment, and Arrowhead 1 in the Brazil-1 morphotype and Alignment, Arrowhead 1, and Fanning in the Brazil-3 morphotype. Some behavioral routines differed across the two morphotypes. Significant differences were also noted between the frequencies of the behavioral units displayed during courtship in the two morphotypes. The relationships between the pre-zygotic incompatibilities of the Brazil-1 and Brazil-3 morphotypes and the differences between the courtship behaviors of their males are discussed. Our results indicate that behavioral isolation is involved in the process of pre-zygotic reproductive isolation of Brazil-1 and Brazil-3 morphotypes.     

Increasing Group Size Alters Behavior of a Folivorous Primate

Group size influences many aspects of mammalian social life, including stress levels, disease transmission, reproductive rates, and behavior. However, much of what is known about the effects of group size on behavioral ecology has come from comparisons across multiple groups of different sizes. These findings may be biased because behavioral differences across groups may be more indicative of how environmental variation influences animal behavior, rather than group size itself. To partially circumvent this limitation, we used longitudinal data to examine how changes in group size across time affect the behavior of folivorous red colobus monkeys (Procolobus rufomitratus) of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Controlling for food availability, we demonstrated that increasing group size resulted in altered activity budgets, based on 6 yr of data on a group that increased from 57 to 98 members. Specifically, as group size increased, individuals spent less time feeding and socializing, more time traveling, and increased the diversity of their diet. These changes appear to allow the monkeys to compensate for greater scramble competition apparent at larger group sizes, as increasing group size did not show the predicted relationship with lower female fecundity. Our results support recent findings documenting feeding competition in folivorous primates. Our results also document behavioral flexibility, an important trait that allows many social mammals to maximize the benefits of sociality (e.g., increased vigilance), while minimizing the costs (e.g., increased feeding competition).     

Analysis of the mating behavior and some possible causes of male copulatory success in Dryas iulia alcionea (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae)

In this study we examined the mating behavior of Dryas iulia and the acceptance and rejection mechanisms of females during courtship activity. An ethogram of mating behavior was organized on the basis of 100 h of observation in an insectarium. Several different behaviors were catalogued and separated into two behavioral repertoires (pre-coupling, post-coupling). The behavioral sequence of mating behavior was also analyzed using a total of 53 pairs of D. iulia. The courtship activities involved interactions between the sexes in three sequential phases—the aerial, air-ground, and ground phases. In 49% of observations the courtship activities led to copulation. The mean time to the occurrence of the first interaction between males and females did not differ between interactions with and without copulation. The behavior of females and males in the two groups were analyzed and differences were found between behavioral activities of both sexes. The results indicate that males’ insistence on courtship does not affect their copulatory success, and that females play a decisive role in copulation occurrence. Analysis of behavioral transitions showed there are many alternative behavioral routines in interactions with and without copulation. The number of behavioral transitions recorded was smaller in the group in which copulation occurred, indicating that males with copulatory success modified their behavior less frequently. Successful males recorded more transitions with a probability of occurrence greater than 0.4, and their behavioral activity was also less reticulated. Analysis using the stereotyping index showed that situations in which copulations occurred were more stereotyped than those in which it did not.     

A New Species of Skin-Feeding Caecilian and the First Report of Reproductive Mode in Microcaecilia (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Siphonopidae)

A new species of siphonopid caecilian, Microcaecilia dermatophaga sp. nov., is described based on nine specimens from French Guiana. The new species is the first new caecilian to be described from French Guiana for more than 150 years. It differs from all other Microcaecilia in having fewer secondary annular grooves and/or in lacking a transverse groove on the dorsum of the first collar. Observations of oviparity and of extended parental care in M. dermatophaga are the first reproductive mode data for any species of the genus. Microcaecilia dermatophaga is the third species, and represents the third genus, for which there has been direct observation of young animals feeding on the skin of their attending mother. The species is named for this maternal dermatophagy, which is hypothesised to be characteristic of the Siphonopidae.     

Widespread Occurrence of Bd in French Guiana,South America

The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a purported agent of decline and extinction of many amphibian populations worldwide. Its occurrence remains poorly documented in many tropical regions, including the Guiana Shield, despite the area’s high amphibian diversity. We conducted a comprehensive assessment of Bd in French Guiana in order to (1) determine its geographical distribution, (2) test variation of Bd prevalence among species in French Guiana and compare it to earlier reported values in other South American anuran species (http://www.bd-maps.net; 123 species from 15 genera) to define sentinel species for future work, (3) track changes in prevalence through time and (4) determine if Bd presence had a negative effect on one selected species. We tested the presence of Bd in 14 species at 11 sites for a total of 1053 samples (306 in 2009 and 747 in 2012). At least one Bd-positive individual was found at eight out of 11 sites, suggesting a wide distribution of Bd in French Guiana. The pathogen was not uniformly distributed among the studied amphibian hosts, with Dendrobatidae species displaying the highest prevalence (12.4%) as compared to Bufonidae (2.6 %) and Hylidae (1.5%). In contrast to earlier reported values, we found highest prevalence for three Dendrobatidae species and two of them displayed an increase in Bd prevalence from 2009 to 2012. Those three species might be the sentinel species of choice for French Guiana. For Dendrobates tinctorius, of key conservation value in the Guiana Shield, smaller female individuals were more likely to be infected, suggesting either that frogs can outgrow their chytrid infections or that the disease induces developmental stress limiting growth. Generally, our study supports the idea that Bd is more widespread than previously thought and occurs at remote places in the lowland forest of the Guiana shield.     

Phylogenetic structure of the Thomomys bottae–umbrinus complex in North America

The phylogeography of the Thomomys bottae–umbrinus complex in the United States and Mexico was assessed with sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. These sequences were obtained from 225 individuals representing 108 locations over the range, including 56 sequences from GenBank. 110 (500 bp) sequences were used for Bayesian inference and neighbor-joining analyses, and 34 (1140 bp) specimens from the main clades obtained from the Bayesian inference were used in maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood analyses. The different analyses indicate significant variation within the species complex that averages 13% among major groups of genetic differences among Thomomys bottae–umbrinus. The overall pattern of geographic variation is not concordant with the current taxonomy. To the contrary, eight monophyletic groups are supported by all analyses and can be considered phylogenetic species. Overall divergence among these groups appears influenced by historical biogeographic events active during the Pliocene and Pleistocene.     

Complete Chloroplast Genome of the Wollemi Pine (Wollemia nobilis): Structure and Evolution

The Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) is a rare Southern conifer with striking morphological similarity to fossil pines. A small population of W. nobilis was discovered in 1994 in a remote canyon system in the Wollemi National Park (near Sydney, Australia). This population contains fewer than 100 individuals and is critically endangered. Previous genetic studies of the Wollemi pine have investigated its evolutionary relationship with other pines in the family Araucariaceae, and have suggested that the Wollemi pine genome contains little or no variation. However, these studies were performed prior to the widespread use of genome sequencing, and their conclusions were based on a limited fraction of the Wollemi pine genome. In this study, we address this problem by determining the entire sequence of the W. nobilis chloroplast genome. A detailed analysis of the structure of the genome is presented, and the evolution of the genome is inferred by comparison with the chloroplast sequences of other members of the Araucariaceae and the related family Podocarpaceae. Pairwise alignments of whole genome sequences, and the presence of unique pseudogenes, gene duplications and insertions in W. nobilis and Araucariaceae, indicate that the W. nobilis chloroplast genome is most similar to that of its sister taxon Agathis. However, the W. nobilis genome contains an unusually high number of repetitive sequences, and these could be used in future studies to investigate and conserve any remnant genetic diversity in the Wollemi pine.     

Breathing synchrony in franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei) and Guiana dolphins (Sotalia guianensis) in Southern Brazil

Synchronous breathing may be a useful proxy for studying other, and perhaps more complex, aspects of cetacean behavior. Here we describe a study conducted in Babitonga Bay, southern Brazil, where we investigated the synchrony of breathing in two small populations of franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei) and Guiana dolphins (Sotalia guianensis). The bay is affected by different sources of anthropogenic disturbances, such as boat activity and point‐source pollution. We assumed breathing synchrony to be the inverse of the time between breathing surfacing displays of dolphins within a swimming pair, which we refer to as lag. The relationship between lag and anthropogenic and animal‐related variables was evaluated with generalized additive models. For franciscana dolphins, breathing synchrony was only positively related to the proximity between animals. Breathing synchrony in Guiana dolphins was positively related to both the proximity between animals and to group size, and varied significantly depending on the research boat used. Proximal characteristics (i.e., of individuals or of the group) of these dolphin species seem to be more related to the synchronization in breathing than are the environmental variables assessed here. Results presented expand the current knowledge of these two dolphin species and provide general insights into the breathing synchrony for cetaceans.     

Fission‐fusion dynamics of Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) groups at Pipa Bay,Rio Grande do Norte,Brazil

Fission‐fusion dynamics seem to reflect individual decisions as well as temporal and spatial variations in the organization of groups of the same species. To understand the group dynamics of the Guiana dolphin, Sotalia guianensis, at Pipa Bay, Brazil, we investigated the three dimensions of a fission‐fusion social system: (1) variation in spatial cohesion, (2) variation in party size, and (3) variation in party composition. Sampling took place from December 2007 to February 2009 over 176 d and we analyzed the behavioral patterns of 658 groups. Within subgroups, animals remained cohesive, particularly in groups of adults and calves. Greater cohesion was also observed during resting and fission‐fusion rates were higher during milling and feeding. Groups composed of adults and juveniles showed a higher dynamics index (group size variation as a function of time) than groups composed only of adults and the fission‐fusion rate was higher during dry periods. Guiana dolphin groups frequently changed their group size and composition every 20 min on average. Taking these factors into consideration, we suggest that the Guiana dolphin demonstrates fission‐fusion dynamics, a pattern of behavior similar to what has been observed in other coastal odontocete species, such as Tursiops spp. and Lagenorhynchus obscurus.     

Diurnal changes of behavior and respiration of Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis) in captivity

A preliminary study was carried out to investigate diurnal changes of behavior of three, one adult male, one adult female, and one juvenile female, Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis) in captivity. The respiration and behavior of the porpoises were recorded for 222 hr across 42 days. Behavioral data were recorded for eight general categories: aerial display and fast swimming, begging for fish, playing, nonsexual socializing, sexual behavior, resting, rubbing, and miscellaneous (i.e., other behaviors not included in the above categories). Each behavioral category was scored using one‐zero sampling with 10‐min intervals. The adult male showed shorter mean respiratory intervals at night (19:00–7:00 h), whereas the mean respiratory intervals of the females were shorter during the day (7:00–19:00 h). Begging for fish of all individuals, playing of the juvenile female, nonsexual socializing, and miscellaneous behavior of the adult female and resting of the male were observed more easily in the day, and aerial display and fast swimming of the adults and resting of the females were observed more easily at night. No significant diurnal difference was found, however, in the remaining categories of each individual. Each of the three porpoises therefore showed a distinct diurnal pattern, but none was obviously more active in the daytime than during the nighttime. Results suggest that daytime‐only feeding schedules may be insufficient to meet the energetic needs of marine mammals that show a 24‐hr activity cycle, and that nighttime feeding may be a worthwhile addition to husbandry routines. Zoo Biol 0:1–11, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Yersinia spp. Identification Using Copy Diversity in the Chromosomal 16S rRNA Gene Sequence

API 20E strip test, the standard for Enterobacteriaceae identification, is not sufficient to discriminate some Yersinia species for some unstable biochemical reactions and the same biochemical profile presented in some species, e.g. Yersinia ferderiksenii and Yersinia intermedia, which need a variety of molecular biology methods as auxiliaries for identification. The 16S rRNA gene is considered a valuable tool for assigning bacterial strains to species. However, the resolution of the 16S rRNA gene may be insufficient for discrimination because of the high similarity of sequences between some species and heterogeneity within copies at the intra-genomic level. In this study, for each strain we randomly selected five 16S rRNA gene clones from 768 Yersinia strains, and collected 3,840 sequences of the 16S rRNA gene from 10 species, which were divided into 439 patterns. The similarity among the five clones of 16S rRNA gene is over 99% for most strains. Identical sequences were found in strains of different species. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using the five 16S rRNA gene sequences for each strain where the phylogenetic classifications are consistent with biochemical tests; and species that are difficult to identify by biochemical phenotype can be differentiated. Most Yersinia strains form distinct groups within each species. However Yersinia kristensenii, a heterogeneous species, clusters with some Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia ferderiksenii/intermedia strains, while not affecting the overall efficiency of this species classification. In conclusion, through analysis derived from integrated information from multiple 16S rRNA gene sequences, the discrimination ability of Yersinia species is improved using our method.     

Chimpanzees Extract Social Information from Agonistic Screams

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) agonistic screams are graded vocal signals that are produced in a context-specific manner. Screams given by aggressors and victims can be discriminated based on their acoustic structure but the mechanisms of listener comprehension of these calls are currently unknown. In this study, we show that chimpanzees extract social information from these vocal signals that, combined with their more general social knowledge, enables them to understand the nature of out-of-sight social interactions. In playback experiments, we broadcast congruent and incongruent sequences of agonistic calls and monitored the response of bystanders. Congruent sequences were in accordance with existing social dominance relations; incongruent ones violated them. Subjects looked significantly longer at incongruent sequences, despite them being acoustically less salient (fewer call types from fewer individuals) than congruent ones. We concluded that chimpanzees categorised an apparently simple acoustic signal into victim and aggressor screams and used pragmatics to form inferences about third-party interactions they could not see.     

Evolutionary History and Phylogeography of Rabies Viruses Associated with Outbreaks in Trinidad

Bat rabies is an emerging disease of public health significance in the Americas. The Caribbean island of Trinidad experiences periodic outbreaks within the livestock population. We performed molecular characterisation of Trinidad rabies virus (RABV) and used a Bayesian phylogeographic approach to investigate the extent to which outbreaks are a result of in situ evolution versus importation of virus from the nearby South American mainland. Trinidadian RABV sequences were confirmed as bat variant and clustered with Desmodus rotundus (vampire bat) related sequences. They fell into two largely temporally defined lineages designated Trinidad I and II. The Trinidad I lineage which included sequences from 1997–2000 (all but two of which were from the northeast of the island) was most closely related to RABV from Ecuador (2005, 2007), French Guiana (1990) and Venezuela (1993, 1994). Trinidad II comprised sequences from the southwest of the island, which clustered into two groups: Trinidad IIa, which included one sequence each from 2000 and 2007, and Trinidad IIb including all 2010 sequences. The Trinidad II sequences were most closely related to sequences from Brazil (1999, 2004) and Uruguay (2007, 2008). Phylogeographic analyses support three separate RABV introductions from the mainland from which each of the three Trinidadian lineages arose. The estimated dates for the introductions and subsequent lineage expansions suggest periods of in situ evolution within Trinidad following each introduction. These data also indicate co-circulation of Trinidad lineage I and IIa during 2000. In light of these findings and the likely vampire bat origin of Trinidadian RABV, further studies should be conducted to investigate the relationship between RABV spatiotemporal dynamics and vampire bat population ecology, in particular any movement between the mainland and Trinidad.     

Notes on neotropical Amanoa (Euphorbiaceae)

Lectotypes are designated forAmanoa caribaea Krug & Urban andA. guianensis Aublet; presumed syntypes of the latter taxon are shown to be heterogeneous by inclusion of a previously unrecognized species. Four new species ofAmanoa are described:A. congesta from French Guiana and northeastern Brazil;A. gracillima from Manaus, Brazil;A. nanayensis from Amazonian Peru and adjacent Colombia and Brazil; andA neglecta from French Guiana and Surinam.Amanoa sinuosa is proposed as a new name for the later homonymA. robusta Leal. A key to the 13 neotropical species is presented.     

Capturing the Temporal Sequence of Interaction in Young Siblings

We explored whether young children exhibit subtypes of behavioral sequences during sibling interaction. Ten-minute, free-play observations of over 300 sibling dyads were coded for positivity, negativity and disengagement. The data were analyzed using growth mixture modeling (GMM). Younger (18-month-old) children’s temporal behavioral sequences showed a harmonious (53%) and a casual (47%) class. Older (approximately four-year-old) children’s behavior was more differentiated revealing a harmonious (25%), a deteriorating (31%), a recovery (22%) and a casual (22%) class. A more positive maternal affective climate was associated with more positive patterns. Siblings’ sequential behavioral patterns tended to be complementary rather than reciprocal in nature. The study illustrates a novel use of GMM and makes a theoretical contribution by showing that young children exhibit distinct types of temporal behavioral sequences that are related to parenting processes.     

Estimating the Rate of Intersubtype Recombination in Early HIV-1 Group M Strains

West Central Africa has been implicated as the epicenter of the HIV-1 epidemic, and almost all group M subtypes can be found there. Previous analysis of early HIV-1 group M sequences from Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly Zaire, revealed that isolates from a number of individuals fall in different positions in phylogenetic trees constructed from sequences from opposite ends of the genome as a result of recombination between viruses of different subtypes. Here, we use discrete ancestral trait mapping to develop a procedure for quantifying HIV-1 group M intersubtype recombination across phylogenies, using individuals'' gag (p17) and env (gp41) subtypes. The method was applied to previously described HIV-1 group M sequences from samples obtained in Kinshasa early in the global radiation of HIV. Nine different p17 and gp41 intersubtype recombinant combinations were present in the data set. The mean number of excess ancestral subtype transitions (NEST) required to map individuals'' p17 subtypes onto the gp14 phylogeny samples, compared to the number required to map them onto the p17 phylogenies, and vice versa, indicated that excess subtype transitions occurred at a rate of approximately 7 × 10⁻³ to 8 × 10⁻³ per lineage per year as a result of intersubtype recombination. Our results imply that intersubtype recombination may have occurred in approximately 20% of lineages evolving over a period of 30 years and confirm intersubtype recombination as a substantial force in generating HIV-1 group M diversity.