Direct inhibition of cytochrome c-induced caspase activation in vitro by Toxoplasma gondii reveals novel mechanisms of interference with host cell apoptosis

The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii is known to inhibit apoptosis of its host cell. The molecular mechanisms of this interference are, however, not yet completely understood. We show here that viable parasites prominently inhibited the activation of caspase 3/7 induced by cytochrome c, dATP and dithiothreitol in cytosolic extracts of human-derived Jurkat leukemic T cells. In contrast, granzyme B-induced caspase activity was only slightly diminished. De novo protein biosynthesis by T. gondii was dispensable for the inhibition of cytochrome c-induced caspase activation. Furthermore, a complete parasite lysate or, more importantly, molecules released by extracellular parasites mediated the interaction with the caspase cascade. The cell-free system applied here is thus a valuable tool to study the interaction of T. gondii and possibly other intracellular pathogens with host cell apoptosis.     

Apoptosis of macrophages induced by Trichomonas vaginalis through the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase that locates at downstream of mitochondria-dependent caspase activation

Trichomonas vaginalis, a flagellated protozoan parasite, is the causative organism of trichomoniasis. We have recently demonstrated that T. vaginalis induces apoptotic cell death via a Bcl-x(L)-dependent pathway in RAW264.7 macrophages. In this study, we attempted to characterize in detail the signaling cascades resulting in T. vaginalis-induced macrophage apoptosis, focusing particularly on mitochondrial changes and the role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) activation. We found that T. vaginalis induced mitochondrial changes including the release of cytochrome c and the serial activation of caspases, leading to the activation of p38 MAPK in macrophages. These biochemical changes culminated in the apoptosis of the host cells. Caspase inhibitors induced a significant inhibition of T. vaginalis-induced nuclear damage, as well as the activation of p38 MAPK. Treatment with the p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB203580, or the overexpression of kinase-inactive p38 MAPK, induced an attenuation of T. vaginalis-induced apoptosis but not cytochrome c release, the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, or PARP cleavage. Furthermore, SB203580 treatment to human macrophages consistently blocked T. vaginalis-induced apoptosis. Collectively, our findings indicate that p38 MAPK signaling cascade is requisite to apoptosis of T. vaginalis-infected macrophage, and this apoptotic process occurs via the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, which is located downstream of mitochondria-dependent caspase activation, conferring insight into the plausible molecular mechanism of T. vaginalis-immune evasion from macrophage attack.     

Cellular death linked to irreversible stress in the sarcoplasmic reticulum: the effect of inhibiting Ca(2+) -ATPase or protein glycosylation in the myocardiac cell model H9c2

Experimental sarcoplasmic reticulum damage induced by 3 microM thapsigargin or 1 microg/ml tunicamycin provoked viability loss of the cell population in approximately 72 h. Release of cytochrome c from mitochondria was an early event and Bax translocation to the mitochondria preceded or was simultaneous with cytochrome c release. The release of cytochrome c was not related with mitochondria depolarization or caspase activation. Irreversible stress in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, detected by the early activation of caspase 12, was functionally linked to the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Caspase 3 processing was blocked by cells preincubation with a selective inhibitor of either caspase 9 or caspase 8 whereas caspase 8 activation was inhibited by a selective caspase 9 inhibitor. This was consistent with the involvement of caspase 8 in a positive feedback loop leading to amplify the caspase cascade. Caspase inhibition did not protect against cell death indicating the existence of alternative caspase-independent mechanisms.     

Abrin induces HeLa cell apoptosis by cytochrome c release and caspase activation

We identified apoptosis as being a significant mechanism of toxicity following the exposure of HeLa cell cultures to abrin holotoxin, which is in addition to its inhibition of protein biosynthesis by N-glycosidase activity. The treatment of HeLa cell cultures with abrin resulted in apoptotic cell death, as characterized by morphological and biochemical changes, i.e., cell shrinkage, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, the occurrence of hypodiploid DNA, chromatin condensation, nuclear breakdown, DNA single strand breaks by TUNEL assay, and phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization. This apoptotic cell death was accompanied by caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation, as indicated by the cleavage of caspase substrates, which was preceded by mitochondrial cytochrome c release. The broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone (zVADfmk), prevented abrin-triggered caspase activation and partially abolished apoptotic cell death, but did not affect mitochondrial cytochrome c release. These results suggest that the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c, and the sequential caspase-9 and caspase-3 activations are important events in the signal transduction pathway of abrin-induced apoptotic cell death in the HeLa cell line.     

Toxoplasma gondii inhibits Fas/CD95-triggered cell death by inducing aberrant processing and degradation of caspase 8

Ligation of the death receptor Fas/CD95 activates an apoptotic cascade and plays critical roles during infectious diseases. Previous work has established that infection with the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii renders cells resistant to multiple inducers of apoptosis. However, the effect of T. gondii on the death receptor pathway is poorly characterized. Here we have determined the impact of the parasite on apoptosis in type I cells that transduce Fas/CD95 engagement via the death receptor pathway without the need of a mitochondrial amplification loop. The results have shown that T. gondii significantly reduced Fas/CD95-triggered apoptosis by impairing activation of the initiator caspase 8. Parasitic infection diminished the cellular amount of procaspase 8, resulting in its decreased recruitment to the death-inducing signalling complex and the impaired activation of effector caspases. Remarkably, downregulation of caspase 8 protein in T. gondii-infected cells also occurred in the absence of Fas/CD95 engagement and was associated with the appearance of non-canonical caspase 8 cleavage fragments. Distinct parasite proteins were associated with caspase 8 and its proteolytic fragments. These findings indicate that T. gondii aberrantly processes and finally degrades the initiator caspase 8, thereby, blocking Fas/CD95-mediated apoptosis which signals independently of the apoptogenic function of host cell mitochondria.     

p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase regulates a novel, caspase-independent pathway for the mitochondrial cytochrome c release in ultraviolet B radiation-induced apoptosis

The mechanisms of UVB-induced apoptosis and the role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) were investigated in HaCaT cells. UVB doses that induced apoptosis also produced a sustained activation of p38 MAPK and mitochondrial cytochrome c release, leading to pro-caspase-3 activation. Late into the apoptotic process, UVB also induced a caspase-mediated cleavage of Bid. Caspase inhibitors benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone and benzyloxycarbonyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-fluoromethylketone substantially blocked the UVB-induced apoptosis without preventing the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c and the p38 MAPK activation. The inhibition of p38 MAPK counteracted both apoptosis and cytochrome c release as well as the DEVD-amino-4-methylcoumarin cleavage activity without affecting the processing of pro-caspase-8. These results indicate that UVB induces multiple and independent apoptotic pathways, which culminate in pro-caspase-3 activation, and that the initial cytochrome c release is independent of caspase activity. Importantly, we show that a sustained p38 MAPK activation contributes to the UVB-induced apoptosis by mediating the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c into the cytosol.     

A role for mitochondrial Bak in apoptotic response to anticancer drugs.

In the present study a clonal Jurkat cell line deficient in expression of Bak was used to analyze the role of Bak in cytochrome c release from mitochondria. The Bak-deficient T leukemic cells were resistant to apoptosis induced by UV, staurosporin, VP-16, bleomycin, or cisplatin. In contrast to wild type Jurkat cells, these Bak-deficient cells did not respond to UV or treatment with these anticancer drugs by membranous phosphatidylserine exposure, DNA breaks, activation of caspases, or release of mitochondrial cytochrome c. The block in the apoptotic cascade was in the mitochondrial mechanism for cytochrome c release because purified mitochondria from Bak-deficient cells failed to release cytochrome c or apoptosis-inducing factor in response to recombinant Bax or truncated Bid. The resistance of Bak-deficient cells to VP-16 was reversed by transduction of the Bak gene into these cells. Also, the cytochrome c releasing capability of the Bak-deficient mitochondria was restored by insertion of recombinant Bak protein into purified mitochondria. Following mitochondrial localization, low dose recombinant Bak restored the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c in response to Bax; at increased doses it induced cytochrome c release itself. The function of Bak is independent of Bid and Bax because recombinant Bak induced cytochrome c release from mitochondria purified from Bax(-/-), Bid(-/-), or Bid(-/-) Bax(-/-) mice. Together, our findings suggest that Bak plays a key role in the apoptotic machinery of cytochrome c release and thus in the chemoresistance of human T leukemic cells.     

25-Hydroxycholesterol activates a cytochrome c release-mediated caspase cascade

We have previously shown that 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-OHC) treated CHO-K1 cells could be used as a model to investigate the signaling pathway of apoptosis induced by oxidized LDL in vascular cells. In the present study, we examine the execution phase of the apoptotic pathway in CHO-K1 cell death induced by 25-OHC. Oxysterol-induced apoptosis in CHO-K1 was accompanied by caspase activation and was preceded by mitochondrial cytochrome c release. The addition of a competitive caspase-3 inhibitor, Ac-DEVD-CHO, prevented 25-OHC-induced apoptotic cell death. Furthermore, immunoblot analysis showed that 25-OHC treatment induced the degradation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-a substrate for caspase 3 and a key enzyme involved in genome surveillance and DNA repair. Thus, we could demonstrate in CHO-K1 cells that 25-OHC activates the apoptotic machinery through induction of the release of cytochrome c from mitochodria into the cytosol and activation of a typical caspase cascade.     

Antimycin A-induced killing of HL-60 cells: apoptosis initiated from within mitochondria does not necessarily proceed via caspase 9.

BACKGROUND: Antimycin A (AMA) inhibits mitochondrial electron transport, collapses the mitochondrial membrane potential, and causes the production of reactive oxygen species. Previous work by me and my colleagues has demonstrated that AMA causes an array of typical apoptotic phenomena in HL-60 cells. The hypothesis that AMA causes HL-60 apoptosis by the intrinsic apoptotic pathway has now been tested. METHODS: Z-LEHD-FMK and Z-IETD-FMK were used as specific inhibitors of the initiator caspases 9 and 8, respectively. Caspase 3 activation, DNA fragmentation, and cellular disintegration were measured by flow cytometry. Cytochrome c release, chromatin condensation, and nuclear fragmentation were measured by microscopy. RESULTS: AMA caused mitochondrial cytochrome c release and neither Z-LEHD-FMK nor Z-IETD-FMK inhibited that. In the absence of caspase inhibition there was a very close correlation between cytochrome c release and caspase 3 activation. Z-LEHD-FMK blocked caspase 3 activation but enhanced DNA fragmentation and failed to stop nuclear or cellular disintegration. Z-IETD-FMK also blocked caspase 3 activation but, in contrast to Z-LEHD-FMK, delayed DNA fragmentation and disintegration of the nucleus and the cell. CONCLUSIONS: The hypothesis to explain AMA-induced HL-60 apoptosis was clearly inadequate because: (a) caspase 9 inhibition did not prevent DNA fragmentation or cell death, (b) apoptosis proceeded in the absence of caspase-3 activation, (c) the main pathway leading to activation of the executioner caspases was by caspase-8 activation, but caspase 8 inhibition only delayed apoptosis, and (d) activation of caspases 8 and 9 may be necessary for caspase-3 activation. Thus, in this cell model, apoptosis triggered from within the mitochondria does not necessarily proceed by caspase 9, and caspase 3 is not critical to apoptosis. The results provide further evidence that, when parts of the apoptotic network are blocked, a cell is able to complete the program of cell death by alternate pathways.     

Hsp27 protects mitochondria of thermotolerant cells against apoptotic stimuli

Enhanced cell survival and resistance to apoptosis during thermotolerance correlates with an increased expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps). Here we present additional evidence in support of the hypothesis that the induction of Hsp27 and Hsp72 during acquired thermotolerance in Jurkat T-lymphocytes prevents apoptosis. In thermotolerant cells, Hsp27 was shown to associate with the mitochondrial fraction, and inhibition of Hsp27 induction during thermotolerance in cells transfected with hsp27 antisense potentiated mitochondrial cytochrome c release after exposure to various apoptotic stimuli, despite the presence of elevated levels of Hsp72. Caspase activation and apoptosis were inhibited under these conditions. In vitro studies revealed that recombinant Hsp72 more efficiently blocked cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation than did recombinant Hsp27. A model is presented for the inhibition of apoptosis during thermotolerance in which Hsp27 preferentially blocks mitochondrial cytochrome c release, whereas Hsp72 interferes with apoptosomal caspase activation.     

Mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation by cytochrome oxidase and tetramethylphenylenediamine via cytosolic cytochrome c redox state

Cytochrome c release from mitochondria induces caspase activation in cytosols; however, it is unclear whether the redox state of cytosolic cytochrome c can regulate caspase activation. By using cytosol isolated from mammalian cells, we find that oxidation of cytochrome c by added cytochrome oxidase stimulates caspase activation, whereas reduction of cytochrome c by added tetramethylphenylenediamine (TMPD) or yeast lactate dehydrogenase/cytochrome c reductase blocks caspase activation. Scrape-loading of cells with this reductase inhibited caspase activation induced by staurosporine. Similarly, incubating intact cells with ascorbate plus TMPD to reduce intracellular cytochrome c strongly inhibited staurosporine-induced cell death, apoptosis, and caspase activation but not cytochrome c release, indicating that cytochrome c redox state can regulate caspase activation. In homogenates from healthy cells cytochrome c was rapidly reduced, whereas in homogenates from apoptotic cells added cytochrome c was rapidly oxidized by some endogenous process. This oxidation was prevented if mitochondria were removed from the homogenate or if cytochrome oxidase was inhibited by azide. This suggests that permeabilization of the outer mitochondrial membrane during apoptosis functions not just to release cytochrome c but also to maintain it oxidized via cytochrome oxidase, thus maximizing caspase activation. However, this activation can be blocked by adding TMPD, which may have some therapeutic potential.     

Ca(2+)-induced inhibition of apoptosis in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells: degradation of apoptotic protease activating factor-1 (APAF-1)

During apoptotic and excitotoxic neuron death, challenged mitochondria release the pro-apoptotic factor cytochrome c. In the cytosol, cytochrome c is capable of binding to the apoptotic protease-activating factor-1 (APAF-1). This complex activates procaspase-9 in the presence of dATP, resulting in caspase-mediated execution of apoptotic neuron death. Many forms of Ca(2+)-mediated neuron death, however, do not lead to prominent activation of the caspase cascade despite significant release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. We demonstrate that elevation of cytosolic Ca(2+) induced prominent degradation of APAF-1 in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and in a neuronal cell-free apoptosis system. Loss of APAF-1 correlated with a reduced ability of cytochrome c to activate caspase-3-like proteases. Ca(2+) induced the activation of calpains, monitored by the cleavage of full-length alpha-spectrin into a calpain-specific 150-kDa breakdown product. However, pharmacological inhibition of calpain activity indicated that APAF-1 degradation also occurred via calpain-independent pathways. Our data suggest that Ca(2+) inhibits caspase activation during Ca(2+)-mediated neuron death by triggering the degradation of the cytochrome c-binding protein APAF-1.     

Caspase-dependent cytosolic release of cytochrome c and membrane translocation of Bax in p53-induced apoptosis

Activation of p53 induces apoptosis in various cell types. However, the mechanism by which p53 induces apoptosis is still unclear. We reported previously that the activation of a temperature-sensitive mutant p53 (p53(138Val)) induced activation of caspase 3 and apoptosis in Jurkat cells. To elucidate the pathway linking p53 and downstream caspases, we examined the activation of caspases 8 and 9 in apoptotic cells. The results showed that both caspases were activated during apoptosis as judged by the appearance of cleavage products from procaspases and the caspase activities to cleave specific fluorogenic substrates. The significant inhibition of apoptosis by a tetrapeptide inhibitor of caspase 8 and caspase 9 suggested that both caspases are required for apoptosis induction. In addition, the membrane translocation of Bax and cytosolic release of cytochrome c, but not loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, were detected at an early stage of apoptosis. Moreover, Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and caspase 9 activation were blocked by the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-fmk and the caspase 8-preferential inhibitor, Ac-IETD-CHO, suggesting that the mitochondria might participate in apoptosis by amplifying the upstream death signals. In conclusion, our results indicated that activation of caspase 8 or other caspase(s) by p53 triggered the membrane translocation of Bax and cytosolic release of cytochrome c, which might amplify the apoptotic signal by activating caspase 9 and its downstream caspases.     

The PKC delta inhibitor, rottlerin, induces apoptosis of haematopoietic cell lines through mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspases' cascade

Rottlerin is a widely selective protein kinase C delta (PKCdelta) inhibitor isolated from Mallotus philippinensis. It shown to be effective against several human tumor cell lines and in potentiating chemotherapy-induced cytotoxcicity. Using the trypan blue exclusion assay, we demonstrated that rottlerin reduced the viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner of human leukemia HL60 cells, human acute T cell leukemia Jurkat cells and mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Rottlerin caused apoptosis and the apaptotic processing was inhibited by a caspase inhibitor, z-VAD-fmk, in these haematopoietic cells. The apoptosis-inducing activities were determined by nuclear condensation, sub-G1 appearance, DNA fragmentation, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsim), release of mitochondrial cytochrome c into cytoplasm and proteolytic activation of caspase 9 and 3. Expression of PKCdelta and Bcl-2 protein inhibited Deltapsim change and repressed cell death. These studies suggest that the cytotoxic effects of rottlerin through inhibition of PKCdelta cause mitochondrial dysfunction, cytochrome c release from mitochondria into cytoplasm and the activation of caspases' cascade.     

Induction of apoptosis by shikonin through a ROS/JNK-mediated process in Bcr/Abl-positive chronic myelogenous leukemia （CML） cells

This study examined the signaling events induced by shikonin that lead to the induction of apoptosis in Bcr/ Abl-positive chronic myelogenous leukemia （CML） cells （e.g., K562, LAMA84）. Treatment of K562 cells with shikonin （e.g., 0.5 pM） resulted in profound induction of apoptosis accompanied by rapid generation of reactive oxygen species （ROS）, striking activation of c-Jun-N-terminal kinase （JNK） and p38, marked release of the mitochondrial proteins cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO, activation of caspase-9 and -3, and cleavage of PARP. Scavenging of ROS completely blocked all of the above-mentioned events （i.e., JNK and p38 phosphorylation, cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO release, caspase and PARP cleavage, as well as the induction of apoptosis） following shikonin treatment. Inhibition of JNK and knock-down of JNK1 significantly attenuated cytochrome c release, caspase cleavage and apoptosis, but did not affect shikonin-mediated ROS production. Additionally, inhibition of caspase activation completely blocked shikonin-induced apoptosis, but did not appreciably modify shikonin-mediated cytochrome c release or ROS generation. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that shikonin-induced oxidative injury operates at a proximal point in apoptotic signaling cascades, and subsequently activates the stress-related JNK pathway, triggers mitochondrial dysfunction, cytochrome c release, and caspase activation, and leads to apoptosis. Our data also suggest that shikonin may be a promising agent for the treatment of CML, as a generator of ROS.     

The permeability transition pore triggers Bax translocation to mitochondria during neuronal apoptosis

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) require depolarization for their survival in culture. When deprived of this stimulus, CGNs die via an intrinsic apoptotic cascade involving Bim induction, Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and caspase-9 and -3 activation. Opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) is an early event during intrinsic apoptosis; however, the precise role of mPTP opening in neuronal apoptosis is presently unclear. Here, we show that mPTP opening acts as an initiating event to stimulate Bax translocation to mitochondria. A C-terminal (alpha9 helix) GFP-Bax point mutant (T182A) that constitutively localizes to mitochondria circumvents the requirement for mPTP opening and is entirely sufficient to induce CGN apoptosis. Collectively, these data indicate that the major role of mPTP opening in CGN apoptosis is to trigger Bax translocation to mitochondria, ultimately leading to cytochrome c release and caspase activation.     

Important role of energy-dependent mitochondrial pathways in cultured rat cardiac myocyte apoptosis

Recent studies have suggested that apoptosis and necrosis share common features in their signaling pathway and that apoptosis requires intracellular ATP for its mitochondrial/apoptotic protease-activating factor-1 suicide cascade. The present study was, therefore, designed to examine the role of intracellular energy levels in determining the form of cell death in cardiac myocytes. Neonatal rat cardiac myocytes were first incubated for 1 h in glucose-free medium containing oligomycin to achieve metabolic inhibition. The cells were then incubated for another 4 h in similar medium containing staurosporine and graded concentrations of glucose to manipulate intracellular ATP levels. Under ATP-depleting conditions, the cell death caused by staurosporine was primarily necrotic, as determined by creatine kinase release and nuclear staining with ethidium homodimer-1. However, under ATP-replenishing conditions, staurosporine increased the percentage of apoptotic cells, as determined by nuclear morphology and DNA fragmentation. Caspase-3 activation by staurosporine was also ATP dependent. However, loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), Bax translocation, and cytochrome c release were observed in both apoptotic and necrotic cells. Moreover, cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition, attenuated staurosporine-induced apoptosis and necrosis through the inhibition of DeltaPsi(m) reduction, cytochrome c release, and caspase-3 activation. Our data therefore suggest that staurosporine induces cell demise through a mitochondrial death signaling pathway and that the presence of intracellular ATP favors a shift from necrosis to apoptosis through caspase activation.     

p53 induces apoptosis by caspase activation through mitochondrial cytochrome c release

The p53 tumor suppressor gene is critically involved in cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and programmed cell death. Several lines of evidence suggest that p53 death signals lead to caspase activation; however, the mechanism of caspase activation by p53 still is unclear. Expressing wild type p53 by means of an adenoviral expression vector, we were able to induce apoptotic cell death, as characterized by morphological changes, phosphatidylserine externalization, and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, in p53(null) Saos-2 cells. This cell death was accompanied by caspase activation as well as by cleavage of caspase substrates and was preceded by mitochondrial cytochrome c release. The addition of the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethyl ketone (zVAD-fmk) directly after transduction almost completely prevented p53-induced apoptotic cell death but did not inhibit mitochondrial cytochrome c release. In contrast, N-acetylcysteine, even at high concentrations, could not prevent induction of programmed cell death by p53 expression. Cytosolic extracts from Saos-2 cells transduced with p53, but not from Saos-2 cells transduced with the empty adenoviral vector, contained a cytochrome c-releasing activity in vitro, which was still active in the presence of zVAD-fmk. When Bax was immunodepleted from the cytosolic extracts of p53-expressing cells before incubation with isolated mitochondria, the in vitro cytochrome c release was abolished. Thus, we could demonstrate in cells and in vitro that p53 activates the apoptotic machinery through induction of the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Furthermore, we provide in vitro evidence for the requirement of cytosolic Bax for this cytochrome c-releasing activity of p53 in Saos-2 cells.     

N‐terminal cleavage of Bax by calpain generates a potent proapoptotic 18‐kDa fragment that promotes Bcl‐2‐independent cytochrome C release and apoptotic cell death

Upon apoptosis induction, the proapoptotic protein Bax is translocated from the cytosol to mitochondria, where it promotes release of cytochrome c, a caspase‐activating protein. However, the molecular mechanisms by which Bax triggers cytochrome c release are unknown. Here we report that before the initiation of apoptotic execution by etoposide or staurosporin, an active calpain activity cleaves Bax at its N‐terminus, generating a potent proapoptotic 18‐kDa fragment (Bax/p18). Both the calpain‐mediated Bax cleavage activity and the Bax/p18 fragment were found in the mitochondrial membrane‐enriched fraction. Cleavage of Bax was followed by release of mitochondrial cytochrome c, activation of caspase‐3, cleavage of poly(ADP‐ribose) polymerase, and fragmentation of DNA. Unlike the full‐length Bax, Bax/p18 did not interact with the antiapoptotic Bcl‐2 protein in the mitochondrial fraction of drug‐treated cells. Pretreatment with a specific calpain inhibitor calpeptin inhibited etoposide‐induced calpain activation, Bax cleavage, cytochrome c release, and caspase‐3 activation. In contrast, transfection of a cloned Bax/p18 cDNA into multiple human cancer cell lines targeted Bax/p18 to mitochondria, which was accompanied by release of cytochrome c and induction of caspase‐3‐mediated apoptosis that was not blocked by overexpression of Bcl‐2 protein. Therefore, Bax/p18 has a cytochrome c–releasing activity that promotes cell death independent of Bcl‐2. Finally, Bcl‐2 overexpression inhibited etoposide‐induced calpain activation, Bax cleavage, cytochrome c release, and apoptosis. Our results suggest that the mitochondrial calpain plays an essential role in apoptotic commitment by cleaving Bax and generating the Bax/p18 fragment, which in turn mediates cytochrome c release and initiates the apoptotic execution. J. Cell. Biochem. 80:53–72, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Rsk-mediated phosphorylation and 14-3-3ɛ binding of Apaf-1 suppresses cytochrome c-induced apoptosis

Many pro‐apoptotic signals trigger mitochondrial cytochrome c release, leading to caspase activation and ultimate cellular breakdown. Cell survival pathways, including the mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, promote cell viability by impeding mitochondrial cytochrome c release and by inhibiting subsequent caspase activation. Here, we describe a mechanism for the inhibition of cytochrome c‐induced caspase activation by MAPK signalling, identifying a novel mode of apoptotic regulation exerted through Apaf‐1 phosphorylation by the 90‐kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (Rsk). Recruitment of 14‐3‐3ε to phosphorylated Ser268 impedes the ability of cytochrome c to nucleate apoptosome formation and activate downstream caspases. High endogenous levels of Rsk in PC3 prostate cancer cells or Rsk activation in other cell types promoted 14‐3‐3ε binding to Apaf‐1 and rendered the cells insensitive to cytochrome c, suggesting a potential role for Rsk signalling in apoptotic resistance of prostate cancers and other cancers with elevated Rsk activity. Collectively, these results identify a novel locus of apoptosomal regulation wherein MAPK signalling promotes Rsk‐catalysed Apaf‐1 phosphorylation and consequent binding of 14‐3‐3ε, resulting in decreased cellular responsiveness to cytochrome c.