昆虫几丁质合成及其调控研究前沿

几丁质合成与降解是昆虫最重要的生理过程之一。本文根据国外和作者自己的研究,综述了昆虫几丁质合成及其调控研究进展。昆虫几丁质的生物合成通路始于海藻糖,终止于几丁质,其中共有8个酶参与。目前研究最多的为海藻糖酶和几丁质合成酶。昆虫存在2个海藻糖酶基因和2个几丁质合成酶基因。可溶性海藻糖酶基因对昆虫表皮的几丁质合成影响更大,而膜结合海藻糖酶基因则主要影响中肠的几丁质合成。几丁质合成酶A主要负责表皮和气管几丁质的合成,而几丁质合成酶B则负责中肠围食膜的几丁质合成。目前,昆虫几丁质合成的调控途径主要有两种:利用RNAi技术和几丁质合成抑制剂。     

亚洲玉米螟几丁质合成酶B(CHSB)启动子序列克隆与分析

昆虫几丁质合成酶是昆虫蜕皮和变态发育过程中几丁质生物合成的关键酶,同时也是环境友好杀虫剂的理想靶标。昆虫几丁质合成酶可分为两类,即A类和B类。其中A类几丁质合成酶(CHSA)主要合成昆虫表皮的几丁质,而B类几丁质合酶(CHSB)在围食膜的形成阶段表达。从亚洲玉米螟3龄幼虫体内提取基因组DNA,利用染色体步移获得了CHSB完整的启动子序列。该DNA片段长度为1484 bp,分析显示该片段为Of CHSB基因5'端侧翼序列,转录起始位点从+1开始,Of CHSB的开放阅读框从+348至+402,分析表明6种类似的转录因子(GATA-1、C/EBPalpha、Oct-1、Dfd、CREB、ER)可能参与Of CHSB的转录调控。转录因子结合位点分别于+116至+127(CREB)、+120至+131(ER)和+292至+302(Oct-1)的区域可能是该启动子的核心顺式元件。     

甜菜夜蛾几丁质合成酶基因的克隆与表达模式

几丁质合成酶(CHS)是昆虫几丁质生物合成过程中至关重要的酶。但是,迄今有关昆虫CHS的研究工作仍不多见。中山大学昆虫学研究所张文庆教授和他的研究生从鳞翅目昆虫甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua中克隆得到了A类CHS基因(SeCHSA),这是我国克隆获得的第1个昆虫CHS基因(DQ062153)。此     

金针菇几丁质合成酶基因家族鉴定及其表达分析

【背景】几丁质是真菌细胞壁的重要成分,由几丁质合成酶（chitin synthase,CS）催化合成。几丁质合成酶编码基因在大型食用真菌金针菇中的数量及表达规律尚不明确。【目的】探究几丁质合成酶基因在金针菇中存在的数量及其在子实体不同发育时期的表达规律,为其在大型真菌子实体生长发育过程中的功能研究提供基础。【方法】基于已有的金针菇菌株L11基因组数据,结合NCBI其他真菌CS序列鉴定金针菇中几丁质合成酶编码基因的数量,并对其进行生物信息学分析。进一步根据金针菇F19转录组数据以及实时荧光定量PCR （RT-qPCR）技术分析金针菇CS基因家族的表达规律。【结果】在金针菇单核体菌株L11的基因组中鉴定到9个几丁质合成酶基因,系统发育分析表明它们在子实体发育过程中的表达模式可分为4类（皮尔森相关系数=0.85）。【结论】金针菇CS基因家族表达模式在金针菇不同生长发育时期均存在差异,可能参与了子实体发育不同时期和组织的形态建成。     

基于黏虫转录组的几丁质酶基因筛选和表达分析

昆虫的几丁质酶对昆虫的生长发育致关重要,是生物农药的重要靶标。本研究使用高通量测序技术对迁飞性害虫黏虫Mythimna separata的中肠和表皮组织进行了转录组测序、序列组装、功能注释及差异表达基因分析。对转录组数据库中鉴定出的几丁质酶基因进行了理化性质的预测,包括cDNA长度、蛋白质分子量、氨基酸序列、等电点、不稳定系数、跨膜结构和蛋白结构域等。使用MEGA软件构建了黏虫和其他昆虫几丁质酶的系统进化树,并通过q-PCR验证了黏虫基因在不同组织和发育阶段的表达模式。通过中肠与表皮的转录组测序,获得了19.42 Gb的数据,在COG、GO、KEGG、KOG、Pfam、Swissprot、eggNOG、nr数据库注释到了25 236个Unigene;基因表达分析结果表明,中肠和表皮的差异表达基因共有3 137个,其中中肠高表达基因有1 872个,表皮高表达基因有1 265个。从转录组数据中鉴定出9个几丁质酶基因,其中7个是新的几丁质酶基因,这些基因的cDNA长度在1 362~9 816 bp,SMART结构预测表明几丁质酶含有1个或多个催化结构域。构建的系统进化树将昆虫几丁质酶基因分为9个亚家族。q-PCR结果表明〖STBX〗MsCht2、MsCht5、MsCht6、MsCht7、MsIDGF1在表皮中表达量较高,MsCht4、MsCht11和MsChi-H在中肠中表达量较高,与转录组数据一致;多数几丁质酶基因在蛹期或预蛹期表达量最高,而MsCht4〖STBZ〗在5龄期表达量最高,在蛹期表达量很低。黏虫几丁质酶基因表达上存在不同的差异,不同的几丁质酶基因可能具有不同的功能。本研究筛选出了7个新的几丁质酶基因,为黏虫的生物防治提供了新的靶标。研究结果为进一步研究黏虫几丁质酶的功能奠定了基础。     

蜕皮激素和有效霉素对粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因表达的影响

【目的】克隆粘虫Mythimnaseparata几丁质合成酶B基因的全长cDNA序列,研究该基因的时空表达特性,分析蜕皮激素(20-hydroxy ecdysone, 20 E)和有效霉素(Validamycin)对该基因表达水平的影响。【方法】本试验通过高通量测序法获得粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因的cDNA全长序列,利用RT-qPCR技术分析粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因在不同发育阶段和不同组织的特异性表达及蜕皮激素和有效霉素对其表达的影响。【结果】基因cDNA全长4 617 bp,包含一个完整开放阅读框,编码1个1 538个氨基酸组成的多肽,分子量为175.629 ku,理论等电点为5.96,包含17个跨膜螺旋,4个几丁质合成酶的标签序列CATMWHET,DGD,EDR和QRRRW及1个催化结构域。该基因命名为MsCHSB,GenBank登录号为KY348776。氨基酸序列比对表明,该基因与其他昆虫的几丁质合成酶B基因同源性高于52%,其中与蓓带夜蛾Mamestra configurata和棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera的几丁质合成酶B基因同源性最高,分别为92%和83%。RT-qPCR技术表明粘虫在不同发育阶段和组织中均有mRNA的特异性表达,其中3龄第1天和中肠中MsCHSB基因相对表达量最高。注射10μg/μL浓度的蜕皮激素6 h和12 h后,表现为对该基因的诱导效应,与对照组差异显著;有效霉素处理后该基因相对表达量均被显著抑制,其中注射20μg/μL浓度的有效霉素48h后,抑制作用最为明显。【结论】本试验得到了一条新的粘虫几丁质合成酶B基因cDNA序列全长。蜕皮激素对MsCHSB基因的表达有一定的诱导作用,有效霉素对MsCHSB基因的表达有一定的抑制作用,该结果为进一步研究昆虫几丁质合成酶B打下了基础。     

稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成酶及合成通路相关酶基因的鉴定及表达分析

【目的】稻纵卷叶螟Cnaphalocrocis medinalis(Guenee)是水稻上的四大害虫之一,危害较为严重,近年来以几丁质合成和代谢过程作为害虫防治的标靶研究已成为热点。为阐明几丁质合成酶及合成通路上关键酶的作用,本研究开展了对稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成酶及合成相关通路上关键酶的克隆及时空表达分析。【方法】本研究基于稻纵卷叶螟转录组,结合PCR及RACE技术,克隆了几丁质合成酶代谢通路上的4条基因的c DNA全长;利用生物信息学软件对序列进行结构预测、序列比对和进化分析;采用实时定量PCR技术研究了4条基因在不同虫态和幼虫的不同组织中的表达情况。【结果】获得了2条几丁质合成酶序列及2条合成通路上的基因序列,包括几丁质合成酶A(Chitin synthase A,CHSA),几丁质合成酶B(Chitin synthase B,CHSB),N-乙酰葡糖胺磷酸变位酶(Phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase,PGM和UDP-N-乙酰葡萄糖焦磷酸化酶(UDP-N-acetylglucosamine pyrophosphorylase,UAP),并分别命名为Cm CHSA、Cm CHSB、Cm PGM和Cm UAP;序列分析显示Cm CHSA序列全长4 868 bp,编码1 564个氨基酸。Cm CHSB序列全长4 651 bp,编码1 525个氨基酸。Cm PGM全长1 934 bp,编码548个氨基酸。Cm UAP序列全长1 837 bp,编码487个氨基酸。实时定量研究表明,Cm UAP和Cm PGM在血淋巴中表达量最高,Cm CHSA在头部和表皮中表达量较高,而Cm CHSB在中肠中表达量最高。【结论】本研究得到了稻纵卷叶螟几丁质合成路径的4个关键酶基因c DNA全长,它们在稻纵卷叶螟的不同组织和虫态中呈现了差异显著的时空表达,本文为进一步探究稻纵卷叶螟的几丁质合成酶的生理功能和几丁质的合成代谢途径奠定了基础。     

荒漠甲虫小胸鳖甲几丁质酶基因MpCht8c的克隆、鉴定与低温表达

为了挖掘荒漠昆虫小胸鳖甲Microdera punctipennis的耐寒性相关基因,从其4℃转录组数据库筛选出差异表达的几丁质酶基因片段394seq2,检测其编码蛋白的几丁质酶活性,研究该基因的表达对低温胁迫的响应情况。采用RACE技术扩增394seq2的5′端和3′端,克隆全长序列,将其ORF构建至原核表达载体pET28a,导入Transetta(DE3)感受态细胞,诱导表达融合蛋白,Western blot法检测表达蛋白的正确性;二硝基水杨酸法测定几丁质酶活性,qRT-PCR技术探究低温表达谱。结果表明,394seq2的5′-UTR为39 bp,3′-UTR为181 bp;ORF为1 140 bp。系统进化树显示该序列与赤拟谷盗几丁质酶8(TcCHT8)聚为一支,命名为MpCht8c。MpCht8c编码379个氨基酸,分子量为41.2 kDa,理论等电点pI为4.67。MpCHT8c含有完整的几丁质酶结构基序,其N端含有几丁质酶催化域,内有一个类18家族几丁质酶的保守基序KXXXXXGGW,中部是一段富PEST的连接区,C端是几丁质酶结合域,属于IV型昆虫几丁质酶。Western blot结果表明His-MpCHT8c在大肠杆菌中正确表达;融合蛋白粗酶液的几丁质酶活性为1.89 U/mL。在4℃冷胁迫0.5 h和5-9 h时Mpcht8c出现两个上调表达峰值,约为对照的2倍。研究表明荒漠昆虫小胸鳖甲的几丁质酶MpCHT8c具有几丁质酶活性,MpCht8c基因的表达可快速响应4℃低温胁迫。研究结果有助于深入研究几丁质酶在小胸鳖甲耐寒性方面的作用机理。     

昆虫几丁质合成酶及其抑制剂

几丁质合成酶(CS)是几丁质合成的关键酶,它具有3个结构域:结构域A、结构域B和结构域C,其中结构域B是催化域。根据氨基酸序列的差异,几丁质合成酶分为两类:CS-A及CS-B,分别在表皮及围食膜基质中催化合成几丁质。关于几丁质合成有2种假想模型。有多种抑制剂可以抑制几丁质的合成,其中核苷肽抗生素类及核苷磷酸类作用于CS的催化部位,是竞争性抑制剂,其它抑制剂的作用机理仍不明确。     

白背飞虱几丁质合成酶1基因的结构及特性研究

几丁质合成酶1(CHS1)是昆虫几丁质合成的关键酶,在昆虫几丁质合成的组织中发挥着重要作用。为探索白背飞虱Sogota furcifera几丁质合成酶1(Sf CHS1)的基因结构特征及其功能,利用转录组测序结合PCR扩增技术,研究了Sf CHS1基因的结构特性,采用定量PCR技术研究Sf CHS1基因的时空表达特性,最后利用显微注射RNAi方法研究Sf CHS1基因的RNAi效果。通过转录组测序获得的Sf CHS1基因开放阅读框为4 719 bp,编码1572个氨基酸,预测蛋白分子量为180.6 k D,预测有6个糖基化位点和16个跨膜螺旋。PCR扩增及测序结果表明Sf CHS1基因存在两个可变剪切,产生两个转录本(CHS1a和CHS1b)。通过系统进化树分析,Sf CHS1和灰飞虱Laodelphgax striatellus及褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens的CHS1同源性最高,为97%。时间表达特异性分析结果表明,Sf CHS1基因在4龄期第1天,5龄期第1天,成虫第1天即几丁质合成时的表达量最高。组织特异性检测结果表明,Sf CHS1基因主要在白背飞虱的表皮中表达,其次为气管,在肠中也有少量表达。显微注射RNAi的结果表明该方法能显著降低Sf CHS1基因的转录水平,并导致白背飞虱的死亡。研究结果说明,Sf CHS1基因具有两个可变外显子结构,Sf CHS1基因在几丁质合成阶段及几丁质含量高的组织表达量较高,沉默Sf CHS1基因的表达会对白背飞虱产生致死的表型,出现较高的死亡率。     

氟虫脲对东亚飞蝗和中华稻蝗几丁质合成酶基因表达的影响

为了探讨氟虫脲可能的作用靶标及毒性机制, 本研究以重要农业害虫东亚飞蝗Locusta migratoria manilensis (Meyen)和中华稻蝗Oxya chinensis (Thunberg)为材料, 采用简并引物扩增中华稻蝗几丁质合成酶1基因（OcCHS1）的部分cDNA序列; 以氟虫脲浸渍法处理2龄中期中华稻蝗及1, 2和3龄东亚飞蝗若虫为处理组, 丙酮处理为对照组, 使用RT-PCR和实时荧光定量PCR方法分析氟虫脲对蝗虫几丁质合成酶基因mRNA表达的影响。结果获得的OcCHS1部分cDNA序列, 其长度为312 bp, 编码104个氨基酸, GenBank登录号为HM214491, 与东亚飞蝗几丁质合成酶1基因（LmCHS1）在氨基酸水平上相似度达95％。RT-PCR结果显示, 处理组几丁质合成酶1扩增带均强于对照组。实时荧光定量PCR结果表明: 与对照组相比, 处理组中华稻蝗2龄中期若虫OcCHS1 mRNA表达提高了1.02倍, 东亚飞蝗1, 2, 3龄若虫LmCHS1 mRNA表达分别提高了34%, 82%和89%, 差异显著（P<0.05）。分析基因表达提高的原因是几丁质合成受阻后基因表达水平的一种代偿性增加, 由此推测几丁质合成酶可能是氟虫脲作用的靶标之一。     

Chitin synthase 2 gene sequence of Malassezia species.

Nucleotide sequences of the chitin synthase 2 (CHS2) gene of seven species, Malassezia furfur, M. globosa, M. obtusa, M. pachydermatis, M. restricta, M. slooffiae and M. sympodialis, were analyzed for their phylogenetic relationship. About 620-bp genomic DNA fragments of the CHS2 gene were amplified from these Malassezia species by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. The CHS2 nucleotide sequences of these Malassezia species showed more than 95% similarity between the species. A phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences of CHS2 gene fragments of seven Malassezia species revealed that the species were genetically distinct from each other.     

Characterization of chitin synthases from Entamoeba

A major component of the Entamoeba cyst wall is chitin, a homopolymer of beta-(1,4)-linked N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. Polymerization of chitin requires the presence of active chitin synthases (CHS), a group of enzymes belonging to the family of beta-glycosyl transferases. CHS have been described for fungi, insects, and nematodes; however, information is lacking about the structure and expression of this class of enzymes in protozoons such as Entamoeba. In this study, the primary structures of two putative E. histolytica CHS (EhCHS-1 and EhCHS-2) were determined by gene cloning and homologous proteins were identified in databases from E. dispar and the reptilian parasite E. invadens. The latter constitutes the widely used model organism for the study of Entamoeba cyst development. The two ameba enzymes revealed between 23% and 33% sequence similarity to CHS from other organisms with full conservation of all residues critically important for CHS activity. Interestingly, EhCHS-1 and EhCHS-2 differed substantially in their predicted molecular weights (73 kD vs. 114 kD) as well as in their isoelectric points (5.04 vs. 8.05), and homology was restricted to a central stretch of about 400 amino acid residues containing the catalytic domain. Outside the catalytic domain, EhCHS-1 was predicted to have seven transmembrane helices (TMH) of which the majority is located within the C-terminal part, resembling the situation found in yeast; whereas, EhCHS-2 is structurally related to nematode or insect chitin synthases, as it contained 17 predicted TMHs of which the majority is located within the N-terminal part of the molecule. Northern blot analysis revealed that genes corresponding to CHS-1 and CHS-2 are not expressed in Entamoeba trophozoites, but substantial amounts of CHS-1 and CHS-2 RNA were present 4 to 8 hours after induction of cyst formation by glucose deprivation of E. invadens. The time-courses of expression differed slightly between the two ameba CHS genes, as in contrast to CHS-1 RNA, expression of CHS-2 RNA was more transient and no plateau was observed between 8 and 16 hours of encystation. However, both CHS RNAs were no longer detectable after 48 hours when most of the cells had been transformed into mature cysts.     

CHITIN SYNTHASE B: A MIDGUT‐SPECIFIC GENE INDUCED BY INSECT HORMONES AND INVOLVED IN FOOD INTAKE IN Bombyx mori LARVAE

Chitin synthase (CHS) is the key regulatory enzyme in chitin synthesis and excretion in insects, and a specific target of insecticides. We cloned a CHS B gene of Bombyx mori (BmChsB) and showed it to be midgut specific, highly expressed during the feeding process in the larva. Knockdown of BmChsB expression in the third‐instar larvae increased the number of nonmolting and abnormally molting larvae. Exposure to nikkomycin Z, a CHS inhibitor, reduced the amount of chitin in the peritrophic membrane of molted larvae, whereas abnormally elevated BmChsB mRNA levels were readily detected from the end of molting and in the newly molted larvae. Exogenous 20‐hydroxyecdysone (20E) and methoprene, a juvenile hormone analogue, significantly upregulated the expression of BmChsB when the levels of endogenous molting hormone (MH) were low and the levels of endogenous juvenile hormone (JH) were high immediately after molting. When levels of endogenous MH were high and those of endogenous JH were low during the molting stage, exogenous 20E did not upregulate BmChsB expression and exogenous methoprene upregulated it negligibly. When the endogenous hormone levels were low during the mulberry‐leaf intake process, BmChsB expression was upregulated by exogenous methoprene. We conclude that the expression of BmChsB is regulated by insect hormones, and directly affects the chitin‐synthesis‐dependent form of the peritrophic membrane and protects the food intake and molting process of silkworm larvae.     

Biochemical characterization of chitin synthase activity and inhibition in the African malaria mosquito,Anopheles gambiae

Abstract Chitin synthase (CHS) is an important enzyme catalyzing the formation of chitin polymers in all chitin containing organisms and a potential target site for insect pest control. However, our understanding of biochemical properties of insect CHSs has been very limited. We here report enzymatic and inhibitory properties of CHS prepared from the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Our study, which represents the first time to use a nonradioactive method to assay CHS activity in an insect species, determined the optimal conditions for measuring the enzyme activity, including pH, temperature, and concentrations of the substrate uridine diphosphate N‐acetyl‐d ‐glucosamine (UDP‐GlcNAc) and Mg⁺⁺. The optimal pH was about 6.5–7.0, and the highest activity was detected at temperatures between 37°C and 44°C. Dithithreitol is required to prevent melanization of the enzyme extract. CHS activity was enhanced at low concentration of GlcNAc, but inhibited at high concentrations. Proteolytic activation of the activity is significant both in the 500 ×g supernatant and the 40 000 ×g pellet. Our study revealed only slight in vitro inhibition of A. gambiae CHS activity by diflubenzuron and nikkomycin Z at the highest concentration (2.5 μmol/L) examined. There was no in vitro inhibition by polyoxin D at any concentration examined. Furthermore, we did not observe any in vivo inhibition of CHS activity by any of these chemicals at any concentration examined. Our results suggest that the inhibition of chitin synthesis by these chemicals is not due to direct inhibition of CHS in A. gambiae.     

Chitin production by arthropods in the hydrosphere

Chitin is widely distributed in nature and its annual production is thought to be huge. However, the chitin production has been rarely estimated in aquatic ecosystems, despite the growing economic interest in this polymer. Arthropods are one of the main chitin producers in the hydrosphere and a correct evaluation of the chitin production by these organisms in the different marine and freshwater ecosystems is of prime interest to understand their importance in the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Such evaluation is also worth considering to achieve a rational exploitation of crustaceans which are currently the major source of chitin for the industry. Annual chitin production of crustaceans and insects in aquatic ecosystems was estimated on the basis of annual tissue production estimates and body chitin content measurements. About 800 annual tissue production estimates were collected from the literature. Estimates mainly concerned continental fresh waters and neritic ecosystems. Data were almost inexistent for athalassohaline and oceanic ecosystems. On the whole, 60% of the production estimates fell between 0.1 and 10.0 g dry weight m^–2 yr^–1. Published chitin levels in crustaceans and insects ranged from 3 to 16% of the whole body dry weight. Data were, however, lacking for some major groups such as trichopterans or amphipods. Aquatic insects and crustaceans were therefore collected and assayed for chitin using a highly specific enzymatic method. The chitin content of the collected insects (Coleoptera, Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) varied from 3 to 10% of the whole body dry weight; that of the collected crustaceans (Amphipoda, Branchiopoda, Copepoda) from 2.5 to 8.5% of the whole body dry weight. Total annual chitin production by arthropods had been estimated to 28 × 10⁶ T chitin yr^–1 for the freshwater ecosystems, to 6 × 10⁶ T chitin yr^–1 for athalassohaline ecosystems and to 1328 × 10⁶ T chitin yr^–1 for marine ecosystems. The importance of the chitin production corresponding to the formation of exuviae and peritrophic membranes in arthropods and the chitin production by non-arthropod organisms in the chitin budget of aquatic ecosystems was highlighted and discussed.     

甘蓝夜蛾两种不同类型几丁质脱乙酰基酶基因的克隆与组织特异性表达

几丁质脱乙酰基酶(chitin deacetylase,CDA)是昆虫几丁质降解酶中的一种酶,可以将几丁质转化为壳聚糖,在昆虫几丁质代谢中具有重要作用.本研究以甘蓝夜蛾Mamestra brassicae5龄幼虫虫体为材料提取总RNA,利用RT-PCR和RACE技术,分别扩增得到甘蓝夜蛾的2类不同几丁质脱乙酰基酶基因的...