Unique hybrids between the fungal pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are yeasts that cause meningoencephalitis, but that differ in host range and geographical distribution. Cryptococcus neoformans occurs world-wide and mostly infects immunocompromised patients, whereas C. gattii occurs mainly in (sub)tropical regions and infects healthy individuals. Anomalous C. neoformans strains were isolated from patients. These strains were found to be monokaryotic, and diploid or aneuploid. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) and sequence analyses indicated that AFLP genotypes 2 (C. neoformans) and 4 (C. gattii) were present. The strains were serologically BD. Mating- and serotype-specific PCR reactions showed that the strains were MATa-serotype D/MATalpha-serotype B. This study is the first to describe naturally occurring hybrids between C. neoformans and C. gattii.     

Isolation and characterisation of the phospholipase B gene of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii

Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii (serotypes B and C) is a human pathogen, ecologically, biochemically, clinically and genetically different from C. neoformans var. grubii (serotype A) and C. neoformans var. neoformans (serotype D). The phospholipase B (PLB1) gene from serotypes B and C was isolated and characterised. It resembled the serotype A and D genes, with an overall sequence homology of more than 85%. The respective open reading frames were 2236 bp (serotype B) and 2239 bp (serotype C) in length. Each contained six introns and encoded a 68-kDa protein destined for secretion. PLB1 was located on the second smallest chromosome in both serotypes. Gene expression, measured as mRNA, was not regulated by temperature, pH or exogenous nutrients.     

树突细胞与新生隐球菌

新生隐球菌( Cn) 是临床上重要的病原真菌, 树突细胞( DC) 则是最重要的抗原呈递细胞。作为宿主固有免疫和适应性免疫的联系枢纽,DC 对于识别病原、呈递抗原、诱导宿主免疫应答十分重要。许多研究证明,DC 可通过细胞表面的多种受体有效识别新生隐球菌抗原( CnAg) , 诱导宿主产生有效的细胞免疫应答。DC 本身也有一定的杀菌能力, 但DC 的不同亚群以及成熟状态对宿主的免疫防御功能有重要影响。另外, 隐球菌除具有甘露糖蛋白等主要免疫显性抗原外, 还有多种抑制机体保护性免疫应答的毒性因子。本文就近年来国内、外对两者之间复杂机制的研究进行概述。     

Detection and identification of probable endemic fungal pathogen, Cryptococcus gattii, and worldwide pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans, by real-time PCR

A real-time PCR method for detection and identification of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii was developed and evaluated using DNA from single-colony or koala nasal smears. Two TaqMan minor groove binder probes that distinguished between these species were designed corresponding to the internal sequences of the CAP59 gene for both species. The real-time PCR assay had 100% specificity, as assessed using 13 reference strains and 300 environmental strains. Twelve smear samples from healthy koalas were analyzed by direct real-time PCR. This method successfully detected C. gattii and C. neoformans in one and three koalas, respectively.     

Metabolites released by Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans and var. gattii differentially affect human neutrophil function

Differences in the ability of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans (CNVN) and var. gattii (CNVG) to establish localized lesions in the lungs of healthy humans remain unexplained. In this study, CNVG infection in a rat model was characterized by early neutrophil invasion into lung tissue, but phagocytosis of cryptococci was not observed. The chemical composition of non-enzymic components secreted by one strain of each variety (heat-inactivated supernatants from CNVN and CNVG, termed vns and vgs, respectively) were compared, using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Effects on human neutrophil viability and functions at both pH 5.5 and 7.0 were investigated, as the pH of cryptococcomas was found to be 5.4-5.6 in vivo. The supernatants were similar in composition, although metabolites in vns were generally present in higher concentrations. In addition, vgs contained two novel metabolites-acetoin and dihydroxyacetone. Polyphosphate was observed in cells from both varieties and may be a source of extracellular inorganic phosphate. Superoxide production in the presence of phorbol ester was enhanced by treatment with vns and decreased by vgs. At pH 5.5, vns caused high levels of necrosis in neutrophils, as well as increased adhesion/migration through A549 lung epithelial cell monolayers. Individual supernatant components such as polyols, acetoin, dihydroxyacetone, and gamma-aminobutyric acid exhibited both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties. Overall, we found that vgs was potentially less pro-inflammatory than vns. Inhibition of neutrophil function by products of CNVG may promote survival of extracellular organisms, and local multiplication to form cryptococcomas.     

Cryptococcus neoformans capsule biosynthesis and regulation

The capsule is certainly the most prominent virulence factor in Cryptococcus neoformans: acapsular strains are avirulent, and capsular polysaccharides have a deleterious effect on the immune system. Until very recently, very few genes involved in capsule biosynthesis had been identified - and this despite the existence of a detailed body of work concerning the capsule's composition, structure and their regulation by environmental factors. The tremendous development of experimental tools and techniques suited to the study of C. neoformans biology together with the sequencing of three complete genomes have, over the last three years, enabled the identification of a number of proteins which participate directly in biosynthesis of the capsule or which regulate its size. Even though this knowledge is still preliminary, it gives us a clearer picture of the various events needed for biosynthesis of this fascinating structure.     

Diversity of laccase among Cryptococcus neoformans serotypes

The pathogenic yeast C. neoformans is classified into three varieties with five serotypes; var. grubii (serotype A), var. neoformans (serotype D), var. gattii (serotypes B and C), and serotype AD. Melanin is a virulence factor in the species, and its biosynthesis is catalyzed by laccase, encoded by the LAC1 gene. In order to estimate the natural variability of the LAC1 gene among Cryptococcus serotypes, the laccase protein sequence from 55 strains was determined and the phylogenetic relationships between cryptococcal and related fungal laccases revealed. The deduced laccase proteins consisted of 624 amino acid residues in serotypes A, D and AD, and 613 to 615 residues in serotypes B and C. Intra-serotype amino acid variation was marginal within serotypes A and D, and none was found within serotypes AD and C. Maximum amino acid replacement occurred in two serotype B strains. The similarity in the deduced sequence ranged from 80 to 96% between serotypes. The sequence in the copper-binding regions was strongly conserved in the five serotypes. The laccases of the five serotypes were grouped together in the same clade of the phylogenetic tree reconstructed from different fungal laccases, suggesting a monophyletic clade.     

Characterization of an ecto-ATPase activity in Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans is the causative agent of pulmonary cryptococcosis and cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, which are major clinical manifestations in immunosuppressed patients. In the present study, a surface ATPase (ecto-ATPase) was identified in C. neoformans yeast cells. Intact yeasts hydrolyzed adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) at a rate of 29.36+/-3.36nmol Pi/hx10(8) cells. In the presence of 5 mM MgCl(2), this activity was enhanced around 70 times, and an apparent K(m) for Mg-ATP corresponding to 0.61mM was determined. Inhibitors of phosphatases, mitochondrial Mg(2+)-ATPases, V-ATPases, Na(+)-ATPases or P-ATPases had no effect on the cryptococcal ATPase, but extracellular impermeant compounds reduced enzyme activity in living cells. ATP was the best substrate for the cryptococcal ecto-enzyme, but it also efficiently hydrolyzed inosine 5'-triphosphate (ITP), cytidine 5'-triphosphate (CTP), guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP) and uridine-5'-triphosphate (UTP). In the presence of ATP, C. neoformans became less susceptible to the antifungal action of fluconazole. Our results are indicative of the occurrence of a C. neoformans ecto-ATPase that may have a role in fungal physiology.     

Anticryptococcal activity of Voriconazole against Cryptococcus neoformans var. gatti vs var. neoformans: Comparison with Fluconazole and effect of human serum

Voriconazole (VCZ), a new wide-spectrum antifungal triazole currently in development, was tested for activity against Cryptococcus neoformans (CN) var. gattii and var. neoformans in RPMI-1640 (RPMI) or RPMI plus human serum. In RPMI VCZ was 10-fold more inhibitory than FCZ for both varieties of CN. In the presence of human serum neither VCZ nor FCZ had enhanced activity against CN var. gattii. By contrast, both VCZ and FCZ had significantly increased activity in the presence of serum against CN var. neoformans. The lack of serum-enhancing activity for VCZ or FCZ against CN var. gattii may reflect the in vivo situation and predict less efficacy in CN var. gattii infections. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cryptococcus neoformans varieties as agents of cryptococcosis in Brazil

The study of the clinical isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans from 83 Brazilian patients with disseminated cryptococcosis showed that 75 were C. neoformans var. neoformans and 8 were var. gattii. Twenty-seven isolates were serotyped; all 19 var. neoformans were serotype A and all 8 var. gattii were serotype B. The correlation of the varieties of C. neoformans with the presence or not of hosts predisposing conditions to the mycosis showed that: (1) cryptococcosis caused by gattii variety occurred in 7 (58.3%) of the 12 nonimmunosuppressed patients, and (2) cryptococcosis caused by neoformans variety occurred in 65 (98.5%) of the 66 AIDS patients and in all 5 patients with other immunosuppressive conditions. The comparison of the distribution of the gattii and neoformans varieties between the nonimmunosup-pressed and immunosuppressed patients showed a significant statistical difference (p < 0.01).     

Genotype and mating type analysis of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii isolates from China that mainly originated from non-HIV-infected patients

Cryptococcosis has been reported to be mostly associated with non-HIV-related patients in China. However, little is known about the molecular characteristics of clinical isolates from the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex in this country. In this study, 115 clinical isolates were included. Molecular type VNI was the most representative ( n =103), followed by VGI ( n =8), VNIII ( n =2), VNIV ( n =1), and VGII ( n =1). With the exception of a serotype D mating type a isolate, all possessed the MAT α locus. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) revealed that most Cryptococcus gattii isolates from China shared identical MLST profiles with the most common MLST genotype reported in the VGI group, and the only one VGII isolate resembled the Vancouver Island outbreak minor genotype. The C. gattii strains involved in this study were successfully grouped according to their molecular type and mating types by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the GEF1 gene. Our results suggest that (1) in China, cryptococcosis is mostly caused by C. neoformans var. grubii (molecular type VNI), and mating type α; (2) The most common causative agents of C. gattii infection in China are closely related to a widely distributed MLST genotype; and (3) The PCR-RFLP analysis of the GEF1 gene has the potential to identify the molecular and mating types of C. gattii simultaneously.     

新生隐球菌线粒体的快速抽提和电镜观察

通过NovoZym234酶溶壁和低渗机械振荡破壁相结合,应用差速离心法分离并纯化了对数生长期的新生隐球菌线粒体,然后从经DNaseI处理的线粒体制备液中分离纯化线粒体DNA;并对差速离心中所获得的菌体、原生质体、线粒体三部分沉淀进行了透射电镜观察,结果均证明了我们所抽提的DNA是纯净的,适用于酶切分析和PCR分析研究,由此成功地建立了快速有效分离和纯化线粒体DNA的方法。 Abstract:Cryptococcus neoformans may be grown to the exponential phase,are broken by a combination of NovoZym234 and mechanical means,and mitochondrial DNA was extracted from DNaseI-treated mitrochondrial preparetion by differential centrifugation.Three pellets,including yeast cell,protoplasts,mitochondrial,were examined by transmission electronic microscopy.The resulting mtDNA is sufficicently pure for restriction endonucleases analysis and PCR in further studying.A rapid and effective method for the preparation of the mtDNA of C.neoformans was established.     

Looking for sex in the fungal pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii

Why are we interested in understanding the mode of reproduction being used by the fungal pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii? Empirical evidence has finally supported the long-held assumption that, by increasing the rate of adaptive evolution, sex increases the chances of long-term survival. Understanding the ability of pathogenic organisms to adapt to diagnostic and treatment regimes is also important in the fight against the diseases caused by these organisms. This review looks at the different approaches used to identify population structure in C. neoformans and C. gattii. These are sexual species; however, recombination in natural populations has only recently been found. We highlight the importance of population selection and the value of both indirect molecular analysis and direct biological evidence for sexual recombination, when looking for the mode of reproduction in these fungal pathogens.     

新生隐球菌对角质形成细胞活力的作用研究

目的研究新生隐球菌体外对角质形成细胞活力的影响。方法将新生隐球菌父代标准株与子代荚膜缺陷株于体外分别与角质形成细胞分别共培养,同时设立热灭活的菌体、空白对照,再分别设立菌体与细胞直接接触与不接触共培养相互对照,分别作用0.5 h、1 h和2 h后,采用流式细胞仪检测隐球菌角质形成细胞的调亡率。结果随着时间延长,与空白对照组及热灭活组比较,实验组角质形成细胞的凋亡率逐渐增加。无荚膜株与父代有荚膜株比较,无荚膜株对细胞活力的影响在作用后1 h、2 h明显低于有荚膜株。2种菌株不直接接触培养使细胞的凋亡率明显下降;不直接接触的有荚膜株与热灭活的菌体之间比较差异不显著。结论虽然有荚膜株与无荚膜株隐球菌均可以使角质形成细胞活性明显降低,但荚膜可以显著增强菌体对细胞活力的影响;角质形成细胞活力的降低主要是通过与菌体接触培养后产生的,诱导细胞调亡需要菌体与细胞的直接接触。     

Towards a vaccine for Cryptococcus neoformans: principles and caveats

In the Damage-response framework of microbial pathogenesis, infectious diseases are one outcome of a host-microorganism interaction in a susceptible host. In cryptococcal disease, damage to the host is caused by Cryptococcus neoformans virulence determinants, the nature of the host response, or both. Further, the disease may be acute or reactivated from a latent state. Hence, a vaccine for C. neoformans would need to prevent disease resulting from either acute or reactivated infection. The evidence to support the development of a vaccine for C. neoformans that induces antibody-mediated immunity is discussed herein.     

新生隐球菌细胞通讯研究进展

细胞通讯系统调控多细胞生物的细胞增殖与分化等多种基础生物学过程,也是调控单细胞生物群体或社会性行为的重要策略。新生隐球菌是一种重要的环境来源病原真菌,主要感染免疫缺陷人群,具有很高的致死率。作为环境致病真菌,新生隐球菌进化出丰富的环境适应性策略。新生隐球菌细胞呈现出高度的异质性和社会性,不同形态的细胞承载着不同生物学功能和病原学特征。越来越多的研究表明,通过细胞通讯系统调控其群体或社会性行为,既是新生隐球菌适应多变的外界环境和宿主环境的关键策略,也与其致病能力密切相关。本文介绍新生隐球菌中细胞通讯系统的研究进展及其在有性生殖、细胞形态转换、适应环境及宿主压力等社会性行为中的调控作用。     

Isolation of a human serum protein that inhibits the growth of Cryptococcus neoformans

Human serum at 5 to 10% (v/v) in tissue culture medium RPMI-1640, inhibits the growth of Cryptococcus neoformans by 80 to 93%. Serum fractionated on molecular sieve columns (Sephadex G-200) yielded an active protein fraction. This fraction at 100 μg protein/ml inhibited the growth of C. neoformans by 54%. When an active G-200 fraction was applied to a dye affinity column (Affi-Gel Blue) the fraction with inhibitory activity was bound by the column and was eluted with 1.4 M NaCl in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). The bound fraction at 62.5 μg protein/ml inhibited C. neoformans growth by 82%. On native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (Nu-PAGE) the bound fraction migrated as a major and a minor band. Under the reducing conditions of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-PAGE the bound fraction yielded 4 prominent bands with MW ranging from 175 kDa to 45 kDa. Purification of the active Sephadex G-200 peak was achieved using an anion exchange column (DEAE-Sephacel). Protein eluted with 0.1 M NaCl had strong anticryptococcal activity (12.5 μg/ml, 79% inhibition), which in SDS-PAGE migrated as a single band with an approximate MW of 85 kDA. This protein appears important in natural host resistance to C. neoformans and polymorphisms or deficiencies may have epidemiologic and diagnostic relevance. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

脱氧胆酸钠体外对新生隐球菌胞外磷脂酶的作用

目的比较观察脱氧胆酸钠体外对自然生长条件下的新生隐球菌新生变种(CZYD7)胞外磷脂酶的抑制作用。方法在37℃下,用蛋黄平板法培养并测量菌株产生沉淀圈的大小,用沉淀圈比值(PZ值)比较磷脂酶活力的变化。结果对照组与脱氧胆酸钠不同浓度组(依次为0.1%、0.2%、0.3%和0.4%)的PZ值分别为0.390±0.050,0.782±0.038,0.875±0.074,0.914±0.048,0.885±0.091;脱氧胆酸钠各浓度组与对照组比较均有显著差异(P<0.01)。脱氧胆酸钠不同浓度组间PZ值比较,0.1%和0.2%、0.1%和0.3%、0.1%和0.4%组间有显著差异(P<0.05)。结论脱氧胆酸钠体外对新生隐球菌新生变种CZYD7株胞外磷脂酶具有抑制作用。     

新生隐球菌通过Dectin-1上调单个核细胞miR-146a的表达

目的 研究miR-146a是否参与新生隐球菌感染免疫应答过程.方法 采用RT-PCR检测了6例新生隐球菌性脑膜炎患者和6名健康个体外周血单个核细胞（PBMC）中miR-146a的表达.以热灭活新生隐球菌刺激来自健康个体的PB-MC,并加入Dectin-1抑制剂昆布多糖,采用RT-PCR检测热灭活新生隐球菌和昆布多糖对PBMC中miR-146a表达的影响.结果 新生隐球菌性脑膜炎患者PBMC中miR-146a的表达较健康个体明显增高.热灭活新生隐球菌可以上调PBMC中miR-146a的表达,昆布多糖可以削弱其上调miR-146a表达的能力.结论 热灭活新生隐球菌可以通过Dectin-1受体上调miR-146a的表达.miR-146a参与了新生隐球菌感染免疫应答过程,值得进一步研究.