An improved method for measuring perceived intensity/time relationships in human taste and smell

A method has been improved for recording and processing perceivedintensity/time curves constructed from panel results. A slide-wirepotentiometer, coupled to a microcomputer, is used to storethe data recorded, which are subsequently treated to eliminateend-effects caused by use of the potentiometer. The data arethen averaged according to their statistical distributions intime and intensity directions. This averaging procedure givesa panel curve in which the three main parameters – themaximum perceived intensity, the time of maximum perceived intensity(t_max) and the time after which the flavour is no longer perceived– are averages of all the corresponding individual scores.Results show that a stronger stimulus is perceived longer andmore intensely, but with the same t_maxvalue.     

Glossopharyngeal taste responses of the channel catfish to binary mixtures of amino acids

This study examines the neural processing of binary mixtures in the glossopharyngeal (IX) taste system of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and finds that the nature of the components of a mixture determines the intensity of the neural response to it. Taste buds in fish innervated by IX are located along the gill rakers of the first gill arch and rostral floor of the oral cavity, and function primarily in the consummatory phase of feeding behavior; however, few studies of IX taste responses have been reported in any species of teleost. Here, we report IX taste responses to eight different binary mixtures of amino acids whose components were adjusted to be approximately equipotent in electrophysiological recordings. Four binary (group I) mixtures whose components were indicated from prior electrophysiological cross-adaptation experiments to bind to independent receptor sites resulted in significantly larger (22% average increase) integrated IX taste activity than four other (group II) binary mixtures whose components were indicated to bind to the same or highly cross-reactive receptor sites. These results are similar to those observed previously from facial nerve recordings in channel catfish, and to olfactory and taste responses in other vertebrate and invertebrate species. The group I results help to explain behavioral observations that chemical mixtures of chemosensory stimuli are often more stimulatory than their individual components.     

Structure-activity relationships and response features for amino acids in fish taste

Recent investigations of amino acid taste responses in fishare reviewed, with emphasis on structure–activity relationships,receptor types and response enhancements. High stereospecificityof taste receptors in fishes is evidenced by response to L-aminoacids of low mol. wt containing three to four carbon atoms,along with L-arginine, a six-carbon positively charged aminoacid. Enantiomers are generally nonstimulatory. Attention isalso informatively given to cross adaptation, synergistic andmixture experiments.     

Receptor sites for amino acids in the facial taste system of the channel catfish

1. Receptor sites for different amino acids in the facial taste system of the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were determined from in vivo electrophysiological cross-adaptation experiments. 2. Relatively independent receptor sites were indicated for L-proline, D-proline, D-arginine, L-histidine and L-lysine, as well as those previously reported for L-alanine, L-arginine and D-alanine. 3. The functional isolation of two nerve twigs that were more responsive to D-alanine than to L-alanine or to other test stimuli provided further evidence for the existence of D-alanine sites that are independent from those to L-alanine. 4. Under all cross-adaptation regimes, the taste responses to the majority of test stimuli were reduced. Various possible mechanisms accounting for this generalized reduction in action potential activity during adaptation are discussed.     

Inhibitory effect of gurmarin on palatal taste responses to amino acids in the rat

Gurmarin (10 microg/ml), a protein extracted from Gymnema sylvestre, depressed significantly (40-50%) the phasic taste responses to sugars (sucrose, fructose, lactose, and maltose) and saccharin sodium recorded from the greater superficial petrosal nerve (GSP) innervating palatal taste buds in the rat. However, no significant effect of gurmarin was observed for taste responses to NaCl, HCl, and quinine hydrochloride. Phasic responses to D-amino acids that taste sweet to humans (His, Asn, Phe, Gln) were also depressed, but gurmarin treatment was without significant effect on taste responses to D-Trp and D-Ala, six L-amino acids (His, Asn, Phe, Gln, Trp, and Ala), and two basic amino acid HCl salts (Arg and Lys). With the exception of D-Trp, these inhibitory effects of gurmarin on GSP taste responses were related to the rat's preference for these substances.     

An in vivo study of ovine placental transport of essential amino acids

Under normal physiological conditions, essential amino acids (EA) are transported from mother to fetus at different rates. The mechanisms underlying these differences include the expression of several amino acid transport systems in the placenta and the regulation of EA concentrations in maternal and fetal plasma. To study the relation of EA transplacental flux to maternal plasma concentration, isotopes of EA were injected into the circulation of pregnant ewes. Measurements of concentration and molar enrichment in maternal and fetal plasma and of umbilical plasma flow were used to calculate the ratio of transplacental pulse flux to maternal concentration (clearance) for each EA. Five EA (Met, Phe, Leu, Ile, and Val) had relatively high and similar clearances and were followed, in order of decreasing clearance, by Trp, Thr, His, and Lys. The five high-clearance EA showed strong correlation (r(2) = 0.98) between the pulse flux and maternal concentration. The study suggests that five of the nine EA have similar affinity for a rate-limiting placental transport system that mediates rapid flux from mother to fetus, and that differences in transport rates within this group of EA are determined primarily by differences in maternal plasma concentration.     

Fitness conferred by replaced amino acids declines with time

The fitness landscape of a locus, the array of fitnesses conferred by its alleles, can be affected by allele replacements at other loci, in the presence of epistatic interactions between loci. In a pair of diverging homologous proteins, the initially high probability that an amino acid replacement in one of them will make it more similar to the other declines with time, implying that the fitness landscapes of homologous sites diverge. Here, we use data on within-population non-synonymous polymorphisms and on amino acid replacements between species to study the dynamics, after an amino acid replacement, of the fitness of the ancestral amino acid, and show that selection against its restoration increases with time. This effect can be owing to increase of fitness conferred by the new amino acid occupying the site, and/or to decline of fitness conferred by the replaced amino acid. We show that the fitness conferred by the replaced amino acid rapidly declines, reaching a new lower steady-state level after approximately 20 per cent of amino acids in the protein get replaced. Therefore, amino acid replacements in evolving proteins are routinely involved in negative epistatic interactions with currently absent amino acids, and chisel off the unused parts of the fitness landscape.     

Distribution patterns of palatal taste buds and their responses to amino acids in salmonids

The distribution pattern of the palatal taste buds and their electrical response characteristics to amino acids were studied in five salmonid species: Arctic grayling ( Thymallus arcticus ), lake whitefish ( Coregonus clupeaformis ), Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ), brown trout ( Salmo trutta ), and kokanee ( Oncorhynchus nerka ). In these fish the most dense taste bud populations were found on ridges in tine area around the palatine teeth. With the exception of lake whitefish, the ridges adjacent to the teeth on the head and shaft of the prevomer were also dense in taste buds, which appear to be largely responsible for amino acid detection. All species, except for lake whitefish, responded well to l -proline ( l -Pro) and l -α-amino- β -guanidinopropionic acid ( l -AGPA), with thresholds at 10⁻⁸-10⁻⁷ and 10⁻⁵-10⁻⁴ M, respectively. These species also responded to varying degrees to hydroxy- l -proline ( l -Hpr) and l -alanine ( l -Ala), believed to be agonists for l -Pro receptors. In addition, kokanee detected l -phenylalanine, l -leucine and betaine. Of six lake whitefish examined, only one specimen responded to l -Pro, l -AGPA and l -arginine. We concluded that in these five salmonid species l -Pro and l -AGPA receptors play a major role in amino acid gustation, and further proposed a hypothesis that salmonids may have initially evolved these two gustatory receptors. With phylogenetic advancement, they gained greater response capabilities by (1) acquiring new receptor types, and (2) by losing the specificity of existing receptors.     

Intramolecular cyclization of isothiocyanyl amino acids/peptide: arrival at unnatural thioxoimidazolidinyl/thioxooxazolidinyl amino acids

Amino Acids - A novel intramolecular cyclization of isothiocyanyl amino acids/peptide is reported to arrive at unnatural thioxoimidazolidinyl (TOI)/thioxooxazolidinyl (TOO) amino acids for the...     

Amiloride reduces the sweet taste intensity by inhibiting the human sweet taste receptor

In mammals, sweet taste perception is mediated by the heterodimeric G-protein-coupled receptor, T1R2/T1R3. An interesting characteristic of this sweet taste receptor is that it has multiple ligand binding sites. Although there have been several studies on agonists of sweet taste receptors, little is known about antagonists of these receptors. In this study, we constructed a cell line stably expressing the human sweet taste receptor (hT1R2/hT1R3) and a functional chimeric G-protein (hGα16gust44) using the Flp-In system for measuring the antagonistic activity against the receptor. This constructed cell line responded quite intensely and frequently to the compounds applied for activation of hT1R2/hT1R3. In the presence of 3 mM amiloride, the responses to sweet tastants such as sugar, artificial sweetener, and sweet protein were significantly reduced. The inhibitory activity of amiloride toward 1 mM aspartame was observed in a dose-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ value of 0.87 mM. Our analysis of a cell line expressing hT1R3 mutants (hT1R3-A733V or hT1R3-F778A) made us to conclude that the target site of amiloride is distinct from that of lactisole, a known sweet taste inhibitor. Our results strongly indicate that amiloride reduces the sweet taste intensity by inhibiting the human sweet taste receptor and also that this receptor has multiple inhibitor binding sites.     

Optical properties of cyclic dimers of amino acids: An experimental and theoretical study

CD spectra have been measured in the vacuum-uv region to about 135 nm for cyclo(L alanyl-glycine), cyclo(L alanyl-L -alanine), and cyclo(L -prolyl-L -proline). In addition to the amide CD bands usually observed at wavelengths longer than 180 nm, a Independent systems calculations show that these intense short-wavelenght bands can be attributed to σσ* transitions of the backbone. Transitions of the amide chromophore expected at wavelenghts shorter than 180 nm cannot account for the observed CD.     

A study of the sulphur amino acids of rat tissues

1. In a study of the metabolism of l-[(35)S]methionine in vivo, the labelled sulphur compounds of rat liver and brain were separated first by ion-exchange chromatography into two fractions containing (i) free sulphur amino acids such as methionine, cystathionine, cyst(e)ine and homocyst(e)ine and (ii) glutathione. 2. Two-dimensional paper chromatography with butan-1-ol-acetic acid or propionic acid-water in the first direction and 80% acetone or acetone-ethyl methyl ketone-water in the second direction was found superior to other solvent systems for separating the sulphur amino acids. 3. At 10min. after injection of [(35)S]methionine only a small part of the (35)S was found combined in free methionine or other free sulphur amino acids. 4. Evidence was obtained of the presence of adenosyl[(35)S]methionine and adenosyl[(35)S]homocysteine in perchloric acid extracts of rat liver and brain. 5. The trans-sulphuration pathway was active in brain as well as in liver.     

A theoretical model for perceived intensity in human taste and smell as a function of time

The psychophysical literature on human taste and smell was searchedfor measurements and theories on the relationship between stimulusintensity and perceived intensity over time. The material availabledid not contain a model which could be applied to changing stimuluslevels, but sufficient data were found to postulate one. Thetime course of perceived intensity during stimulation can bedescribed by a time-dependent version of the power law. Thisinvolves a differential equation which relates the thresholdof perception to the time course of the presented stimulus.The results of our own panel tests correspond fully with thepredictions arising from the theory presented herein. The sametrend is also visible in literature curves.     

Dissociating pleasantness and intensity with quinine sulfate/sucrose mixtures in taste

Independent experimental manipulation of subjective intensity and hedonic tone is required if one wants to study their separate effects on brain activity and behavior. This is problematic because hedonic tone and subjective intensity are related, leading to a pleasantness change each time the stimulus intensity is altered. In the present study, a solution to this problem was explored by combining a pleasant-tasting substance (sucrose) and a bad-tasting substance (quinine sulfate) into a number of different isointense mixtures. Here we show that subjective intensity as well as pleasantness can be accurately predicted, particularly in midrange, only if one corrects for mixture suppression.