The Zds proteins control entry into mitosis and target protein phosphatase 2A to the Cdc25 phosphatase

The Wee1 kinase restrains entry into mitosis by phosphorylating and inhibiting cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1). The Cdc25 phosphatase promotes entry into mitosis by removing Cdk1 inhibitory phosphorylation. Experiments in diverse systems have established that Wee1 and Cdc25 are regulated by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), but a full understanding of the function and regulation of PP2A in entry into mitosis has remained elusive. In budding yeast, entry into mitosis is controlled by a specific form of PP2A that is associated with the Cdc55 regulatory subunit (PP2A(Cdc55)). We show here that related proteins called Zds1 and Zds2 form a tight stoichiometric complex with PP2A(Cdc55) and target its activity to Cdc25 but not to Wee1. Conditional inactivation of the Zds proteins revealed that their function is required primarily at entry into mitosis. In addition, Zds1 undergoes cell cycle-dependent changes in phosphorylation. Together, these observations define a role for the Zds proteins in controlling specific functions of PP2A(Cdc55) and suggest that upstream signals that regulate PP2A(Cdc55) may play an important role in controlling entry into mitosis.     

A role for the Pkc1p/Mpk1p kinase cascade in the morphogenesis checkpoint

In many cells the timing of entry into mitosis is controlled by the balance between the activity of inhibitory Wee1-related kinases (Swe1p in budding yeast) and the opposing effect of Cdc25-related phosphatases (Mih1p in budding yeast) that act on the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc2 (Cdc28p in budding yeast). Wee1 and Cdc25 are key elements in the G2 arrest mediated by diverse checkpoint controls. In budding yeast, a 'morphogenesis checkpoint' that involves Swe1p and Mih1p delays mitotic activation of Cdc28p. Many environmental stresses (such as shifts in temperature or osmolarity) provoke transient depolarization of the actin cytoskeleton, during which bud construction is delayed while cells adapt to environmental conditions. During this delay, the morphogenesis checkpoint halts the cell cycle in G2 phase until actin can repolarize and complete bud construction, thus preventing the generation of binucleate cells. A similar G2 delay can be triggered by mutations or drugs that specifically impair actin organization, indicating that it is probably actin disorganization itself, rather than specific environmental stresses, that triggers the delay. The G2 delay involves stabilization of Swe1p in response to various actin perturbations, although this alone is insufficient to produce a long G2 delay.     

Human Cdc14A regulates Wee1 stability by counteracting CDK-mediated phosphorylation

The activity of Cdk1–cyclin B1 mitotic complexes is regulated by the balance between the counteracting activities of Wee1/Myt1 kinases and Cdc25 phosphatases. These kinases and phosphatases must be strictly regulated to ensure proper mitotic timing. One masterpiece of this regulatory network is Cdk1, which promotes Cdc25 activity and suppresses inhibitory Wee1/Myt1 kinases through direct phosphorylation. The Cdk1-dependent phosphorylation of Wee1 primes phosphorylation by additional kinases such as Plk1, triggering Wee1 degradation at the onset of mitosis. Here we report that Cdc14A plays an important role in the regulation of Wee1 stability. Depletion of Cdc14A results in a significant reduction in Wee1 protein levels. Cdc14A binds to Wee1 at its amino-terminal domain and reverses CDK-mediated Wee1 phosphorylation. In particular, we found that Cdc14A inhibits Wee1 degradation through the dephosphorylation of Ser-123 and Ser-139 residues. Thus the lack of phosphorylation of these two residues prevents the interaction with Plk1 and the consequent efficient Wee1 degradation at the onset of mitosis. These data support the hypothesis that Cdc14A counteracts Cdk1–cyclin B1 activity through Wee1 dephosphorylation.     

The xenopus Suc1/Cks protein promotes the phosphorylation of G(2)/M regulators

The entry into mitosis is controlled by Cdc2/cyclin B, also known as maturation or M-phase promoting factor (MPF). In Xenopus egg extracts, the inhibitory phosphorylations of Cdc2 on Tyr-15 and Thr-14 are controlled by the phosphatase Cdc25 and the kinases Myt1 and Wee1. At mitosis, Cdc25 is activated and Myt1 and Wee1 are inactivated through phosphorylation by multiple kinases, including Cdc2 itself. The Cdc2-associated Suc1/Cks1 protein (p9) is also essential for entry of egg extracts into mitosis, but the molecular basis of this requirement has been unknown. We find that p9 strongly stimulates the regulatory phosphorylations of Cdc25, Myt1, and Wee1 that are carried out by the Cdc2/cyclin B complex. Overexpression of the prolyl isomerase Pin1, which binds to the hyperphosphorylated forms of Cdc25, Myt1, and Wee1 found at M-phase, is known to block the initiation of mitosis in egg extracts. We have observed that Pin1 specifically antagonizes the stimulatory effect of p9 on phosphorylation of Cdc25 by Cdc2/cyclin B. This observation could explain why overexpression of Pin1 inhibits mitotic initiation. These findings suggest that p9 promotes the entry into mitosis by facilitating phosphorylation of the key upstream regulators of Cdc2.     

Concerted mechanism of Swe1/Wee1 regulation by multiple kinases in budding yeast

In eukaryotes, entry into mitosis is induced by cyclin B-bound Cdk1, which is held in check by the protein kinase, Wee1. In budding yeast, Swe1 (Wee1 ortholog) is targeted to the bud neck through Hsl1 (Nim1-related kinase) and its adaptor Hsl7, and is hyperphosphorylated prior to ubiquitin-mediated degradation. Here, we show that Hsl1 and Hsl7 are required for proper localization of Cdc5 (Polo-like kinase homolog) to the bud neck and Cdc5-dependent Swe1 phosphorylation. Mitotic cyclin (Clb2)-bound Cdc28 (Cdk1 homolog) directly phosphorylated Swe1 and this modification served as a priming step to promote subsequent Cdc5-dependent Swe1 hyperphosphorylation and degradation. Clb2-Cdc28 also facilitated Cdc5 localization to the bud neck through the enhanced interaction between the Clb2-Cdc28-phosphorylated Swe1 and the polo-box domain of Cdc5. We propose that the concerted action of Cdc28/Cdk1 and Cdc5/Polo on their common substrates is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that is crucial for effectively triggering mitotic entry and other critical mitotic events.     

Regulation of Mih1/Cdc25 by protein phosphatase 2A and casein kinase 1

The Cdc25 phosphatase promotes entry into mitosis by removing cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) inhibitory phosphorylation. Previous work suggested that Cdc25 is activated by Cdk1 in a positive feedback loop promoting entry into mitosis; however, it has remained unclear how the feedback loop is initiated. To learn more about the mechanisms that regulate entry into mitosis, we have characterized the function and regulation of Mih1, the budding yeast homologue of Cdc25. We found that Mih1 is hyperphosphorylated early in the cell cycle and is dephosphorylated as cells enter mitosis. Casein kinase 1 is responsible for most of the hyperphosphorylation of Mih1, whereas protein phosphatase 2A associated with Cdc55 dephosphorylates Mih1. Cdk1 appears to directly phosphorylate Mih1 and is required for initiation of Mih1 dephosphorylation as cells enter mitosis. Collectively, these observations suggest that Mih1 regulation is achieved by a balance of opposing kinase and phosphatase activities. Because casein kinase 1 is associated with sites of polar growth, it may regulate Mih1 as part of a signaling mechanism that links successful completion of growth-related events to cell cycle progression.     

Drosophila Wee1 kinase regulates Cdk1 and mitotic entry during embryogenesis

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are the central regulators of the cell division cycle. Inhibitors of Cdks ensure proper coordination of cell cycle events and help regulate cell proliferation in the context of tissues and organs. Wee1 homologs phosphorylate a conserved tyrosine to inhibit the mitotic cyclin-dependent kinase Cdk1. Loss of Wee1 function in fission or budding yeast causes premature entry into mitosis. The importance of metazoan Wee1 homologs for timing mitosis, however, has been demonstrated only in Xenopus egg extracts and via ectopic Cdk1 activation . Here, we report that Drosophila Wee1 (dWee1) regulates Cdk1 via phosphorylation of tyrosine 15 and times mitotic entry during the cortical nuclear cycles of syncytial blastoderm embryos, which lack gap phases. Loss of maternal dwee1 leads to premature entry into mitosis, mitotic spindle defects, chromosome condensation problems, and a Chk2-dependent block of subsequent development, and then embryonic lethality. These findings modify previous models about cell cycle regulation in syncytial embryos and demonstrate that Wee1 kinases can regulate mitotic entry in vivo during metazoan development even in cycles that lack a G2 phase.     

Human Cdc14A becomes a cell cycle gene in controlling Cdk1 activity at the G2/M transition

Cdc14 belongs to a dual-specificity phosphatase family highly conserved through evolution that preferentially reverses CDK (Cyclin dependent kinases) –dependent phosphorylation events. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Cdc14 is an essential regulator of late mitotic events and exit from mitosis by counteracting CDK activity at the end of mitosis. However, many studies have shown that Cdc14 is dispensable for exiting mitosis in all other model systems analyzed. In fission yeast, the Cdc14 homologue Flp1/Clp1 regulates the stability of the mitotic inducer Cdc25 at the end of mitosis to ensure Cdk1 inactivation before cytokinesis. We have recently reported that human Cdc14A, the Cdc14 isoform located at the centrosomes during interphase, down-regulates Cdc25 activity at the G2/M transition to prevent premature activation of Cdk1-Cyclin B1 complexes and untimely entry into mitosis. Here we speculate about new molecular mechanisms for Cdc14A and discuss the current evidence suggesting that Cdc14 phosphatase plays a role in cell cycle control in higher eukaryotes.     

Hsp90 chaperone complexes are required for the activity and stability of yeast protein kinases Mik1, Wee1 and Swe1.

The Wee1 protein kinase negatively regulates entry into mitosis by mediating the inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation of Cdc2-cyclin B kinase. The stability and activity of Wee1 from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is critically dependent on functional Hsp90 chaperones. Here we identify two related tyrosine protein kinases, Mik1 from fission yeast and its Saccharomyces cerevisiae homolog Swe1, as Hsp90 substrates and show that the kinase domain is sufficient to mediate this interaction. Morphological and biochemical defects arising from overexpression of the kinases in fission yeast are suppressed in the conditional Hsp90 mutant swo1-26. A subset of all three kinases is associated with the Hsp90 cochaperones cyclophilin 40 and p23. Under conditions of impaired chaperone function or treatment with the Hsp90 inhibitory drug geldanamycin, intracellular levels of the kinases are reduced and the proteins become rapidly degraded by the proteasome machinery, indicating that Wee1, Mik1 and Swe1 require Hsp90 heterocomplexes for their stability and maintenance of function.     

Differential susceptibility of yeast S and M phase CDK complexes to inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation

BACKGROUND: Several checkpoint pathways employ Wee1-mediated inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to restrain cell-cycle progression. Whereas in vertebrates this strategy can delay both DNA replication and mitosis, in yeast cells only mitosis is delayed. This is particularly surprising because yeasts, unlike vertebrates, employ a single family of cyclins (B type) and the same CDK to promote both S phase and mitosis. The G2-specific arrest could be explained in two fundamentally different ways: tyrosine phosphorylation of cyclin/CDK complexes could leave sufficient residual activity to promote S phase, or S phase-promoting cyclin/CDK complexes could somehow be protected from checkpoint-induced tyrosine phosphorylation. RESULTS: We demonstrate that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, several cyclin/CDK complexes are protected from inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation, allowing Clb5,6p to promote DNA replication and Clb3,4p to promote spindle assembly, even under checkpoint-inducing conditions that block nuclear division. In vivo, S phase-promoting Clb5p/Cdc28p complexes were phosphorylated more slowly and dephosphorylated more effectively than were mitosis-promoting Clb2p/Cdc28p complexes. Moreover, we show that the CDK inhibitor (CKI) Sic1p protects bound Clb5p/Cdc28p complexes from tyrosine phosphorylation, allowing the accumulation of unphosphorylated complexes that are unleashed when Sic1p is degraded to promote S phase. The vertebrate CKI p27(Kip1) similarly protects Cyclin A/Cdk2 complexes from Wee1, suggesting that the antagonism between CKIs and Wee1 is evolutionarily conserved. CONCLUSIONS: In yeast cells, the combination of CKI binding and preferential phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of different B cyclin/CDK complexes renders S phase progression immune from checkpoints acting via CDK tyrosine phosphorylation.     

Fission yeast Clp1p phosphatase affects G2/M transition and mitotic exit through Cdc25p inactivation

The Cdc14 family of phosphatases specifically reverses proline-directed phosphorylation events. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Cdc14p promotes Cdk1p inactivation at mitotic exit by reversing Cdk1p-dependent phosphorylations. Cdk1p is a proline-directed kinase whose activity is required in all eukaryotes for the transit into mitosis. At mitotic commitment, Cdk1p participates in its own regulation by activating the mitotic inducing phosphatase, Cdc25p, and inhibiting the opposing kinase, Wee1p. We have investigated the ability of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Clp1p, a Cdc14p homolog, to disrupt this auto-amplification loop. We show here that Clp1p is required to dephosphorylate, destabilize, and inactivate Cdc25p at the end of mitosis. Clp1p promotes recognition of Cdc25p by the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome, an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Failure to inactivate and destabilize Cdc25p in late mitosis delays progression through anaphase, interferes with septation initiation network signaling, and additionally advances the commitment to mitotic entry in the next cycle. This may be a widely conserved mechanism whereby Cdc14 proteins contribute to Cdk1p inactivation.     

A Wee1 checkpoint inhibits anaphase onset

Cdk1 drives both mitotic entry and the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Past work has shown that Wee1 inhibition of Cdk1 blocks mitotic entry. Here we show that the budding yeast Wee1 kinase, Swe1, also restrains the metaphase-to-anaphase transition by preventing Cdk1 phosphorylation and activation of the mitotic form of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC^Cdc20). Deletion of SWE1 or its opposing phosphatase MIH1 (the budding yeast cdc25⁺) altered the timing of anaphase onset, and activation of the Swe1-dependent morphogenesis checkpoint or overexpression of Swe1 blocked cells in metaphase with reduced APC activity in vivo and in vitro. The morphogenesis checkpoint also depended on Cdc55, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). cdc55Δ checkpoint defects were rescued by mutating 12 Cdk1 phosphorylation sites on the APC, demonstrating that the APC is a target of this checkpoint. These data suggest a model in which stepwise activation of Cdk1 and inhibition of PP2A^Cdc55 triggers anaphase onset.     

Monitoring the Cell Cycle by Multi-Kinase-Dependent Regulation of Swe1/Wee1 in Budding Yeast

In eukaryotes, G2/M transition is induced by the activation of cyclin B-bound Cdk1, which is held in check by the protein kinase, Wee1. Recent advances in our understanding of mitotic entry in budding yeast has revealed that these cells utilize the level of Swe1 (Wee1 ortholog) phosphorylation as a means of monitoring cell cycle progression and of coordinating morphogenetic events with mitotic entry. Swe1 is phosphorylated by at least three distinct kinases at different stages of the cell cycle. This cumulative phosphorylation leads to the hyperphosphorylation and degradation of Swe1 through ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Thus, Swe1 functions as an important cell cycle modulator that integrates multiple upstream signals from prior cell cycle events before its ultimate degradation permits passage into mitosis.     

Mitotic progression becomes irreversible in prometaphase and collapses when Wee1 and Cdc25 are inhibited

Mitosis requires precise coordination of multiple global reorganizations of the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) is the primary upstream kinase that directs mitotic progression by phosphorylation of a large number of substrate proteins. Cdk1 activation reaches the peak level due to positive feedback mechanisms. By inhibiting Cdk chemically, we showed that, in prometaphase, when Cdk1 substrates approach the peak of their phosphorylation, cells become capable of proper M-to-G1 transition. We interfered with the molecular components of the Cdk1-activating feedback system through use of chemical inhibitors of Wee1 and Myt1 kinases and Cdc25 phosphatases. Inhibition of Wee1 and Myt1 at the end of the S phase led to rapid Cdk1 activation and morphologically normal mitotic entry, even in the absence of G2. Dampening Cdc25 phosphatases simultaneously with Wee1 and Myt1 inhibition prevented Cdk1/cyclin B kinase activation and full substrate phosphorylation and induced a mitotic "collapse," a terminal state characterized by the dephosphorylation of mitotic substrates without cyclin B proteolysis. This was blocked by the PP1/PP2A phosphatase inhibitor, okadaic acid. These findings suggest that the positive feedback in Cdk activation serves to overcome the activity of Cdk-opposing phosphatases and thus sustains forward progression in mitosis.     

“Ready,Set, Go”: Checkpoint regulation by Cdk1 inhibitory phosphorylation

ABSTRACT

Cell cycle checkpoints prevent mitosis from occurring before DNA replication and repair are completed during S and G2 phases. The checkpoint mechanism involves inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdk1, a conserved kinase that regulates the onset of mitosis. Metazoans have two distinct Cdk1 inhibitory kinases with specialized developmental functions: Wee1 and Myt1. Ayeni et al used transgenic Cdk1 phospho-acceptor mutants to analyze how the distinct biochemical properties of these kinases affected their functions. They concluded from their results that phosphorylation of Cdk1 on Y15 was necessary and sufficient for G2/M checkpoint arrest in imaginal wing discs, whereas phosphorylation on T14 promoted chromosome stability by a different mechanism. A curious relationship was also noted between Y15 inhibitory phosphorylation and T161 activating phosphorylation. These unexpected complexities in Cdk1 inhibitory phosphorylation demonstrate that the checkpoint mechanism is not a simple binary “off/on” switch, but has at least three distinct states: “Ready”, to prevent chromosome damage and apoptosis, “Set”, for developmentally regulated G2 phase arrest, and “Go”, when Cdc25 phosphatases remove inhibitory phosphates to trigger Cdk1 activation at the G2/M transition.     

Downregulation of PP2A(Cdc55) phosphatase by separase initiates mitotic exit in budding yeast

After anaphase, the high mitotic cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) activity is downregulated to promote exit from mitosis. To this end, in the budding yeast S. cerevisiae, the Cdk counteracting phosphatase Cdc14 is activated. In metaphase, Cdc14 is kept inactive in the nucleolus by its inhibitor Net1. During anaphase, Cdk- and Polo-dependent phosphorylation of Net1 is thought to release active Cdc14. How Net1 is phosphorylated specifically in anaphase, when mitotic kinase activity starts to decline, has remained unexplained. Here, we show that PP2A(Cdc55) phosphatase keeps Net1 underphosphorylated in metaphase. The sister chromatid-separating protease separase, activated at anaphase onset, interacts with and downregulates PP2A(Cdc55), thereby facilitating Cdk-dependent Net1 phosphorylation. PP2A(Cdc55) downregulation also promotes phosphorylation of Bfa1, contributing to activation of the "mitotic exit network" that sustains Cdc14 as Cdk activity declines. These findings allow us to present a new quantitative model for mitotic exit in budding yeast.     

A mathematical model of mitotic exit in budding yeast: the role of Polo kinase

Cell cycle progression in eukaryotes is regulated by periodic activation and inactivation of a family of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk's). Entry into mitosis requires phosphorylation of many proteins targeted by mitotic Cdk, and exit from mitosis requires proteolysis of mitotic cyclins and dephosphorylation of their targeted proteins. Mitotic exit in budding yeast is known to involve the interplay of mitotic kinases (Cdk and Polo kinases) and phosphatases (Cdc55/PP2A and Cdc14), as well as the action of the anaphase promoting complex (APC) in degrading specific proteins in anaphase and telophase. To understand the intricacies of this mechanism, we propose a mathematical model for the molecular events during mitotic exit in budding yeast. The model captures the dynamics of this network in wild-type yeast cells and 110 mutant strains. The model clarifies the roles of Polo-like kinase (Cdc5) in the Cdc14 early anaphase release pathway and in the G-protein regulated mitotic exit network.     

Specificity of Cdk activation in vivo by the two Caks Mcs6 and Csk1 in fission yeast

Activating phosphorylation of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) is mediated by at least two structurally distinct types of Cdk-activating kinases (Caks): the trimeric Cdk7-cyclin H-Mat1 complex in metazoans and the single-subunit Cak1 in budding yeast. Fission yeast has both Cak types: Mcs6 is a Cdk7 ortholog and Csk1 a single-subunit kinase. Both phosphorylate Cdks in vitro and rescue a thermosensitive budding yeast CAK1 strain. However, this apparent redundancy is not observed in fission yeast in vivo. We have identified mutants that exhibit phenotypes attributable to defects in either Mcs6-activating phosphorylation or in Cdc2-activating phosphorylation. Mcs6, human Cdk7 and budding yeast Cak1 were all active as Caks for Cdc2 when expressed in fission yeast. Although Csk1 could activate Mcs6, it was unable to activate Cdc2. Biochemical experiments supported these genetic results: budding yeast Cak1 could bind and phosphorylate Cdc2 from fission yeast lysates, whereas fission yeast Csk1 could not. These results indicate that Mcs6 is the direct activator of Cdc2, and Csk1 only activates Mcs6. This demonstrates in vivo specificity in Cdk activation by Caks.     

Functional homology among human and fission yeast Cdc14 phosphatases

Budding and fission yeast Cdc14 homologues, a conserved family of serine-threonine phosphatases, play a role in the inactivation of mitotic cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) by molecularly distinct mechanisms. Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cdc14 protein phosphatase inactivates CDKs by promoting mitotic cyclin degradation and the accumulation of a CDK inhibitor to allow budding yeast cells to exit from mitosis. Schizosaccharomyces pombe Flp1 phosphatase down-regulates CDK/cyclin activity, controlling the degradation of the Cdc25 tyrosine phosphatase for fission yeast cells to undergo cytokinesis. In the present work, we show that human Cdc14 homologues (hCdc14A and hCdc14B) rescued flp1-deficient fission yeast strains, indicating functional homology. We also show that hCdc14A and B interacted in vivo with S. pombe Cdc25 and that hCdc14A dephosphorylated this mitotic inducer both in vitro and in vivo. Our results support a Cdc14 conserved inhibitory mechanism acting on S. pombe Cdc25 protein and suggest that human cells may regulate Cdc25 in a similar manner to inactivate Cdk1-mitotic cyclin complexes.     

Human Cdc14A phosphatase modulates the G2/M transition through Cdc25A and Cdc25B

The Cdc14 family of serine-threonine phosphatases antagonizes CDK activity by reversing CDK-dependent phosphorylation events. It is well established that the yeast members of this family bring about the M/G1 transition. Budding yeast Cdc14 is essential for CDK inactivation at the end of mitosis and fission yeast Cdc14 homologue Flp1/Clp1 down-regulates Cdc25 to ensure the inactivation of mitotic CDK complexes to trigger cell division. However, the functions of human Cdc14 homologues remain poorly understood. Here we have tested the hypothesis that Cdc14A might regulate Cdc25 mitotic inducers in human cells. We found that increasing levels of Cdc14A delay entry into mitosis by inhibiting Cdk1-cyclin B1 activity. By contrast, lowering the levels of Cdc14A accelerates mitotic entry. Biochemical analyses revealed that Cdc14A acts through key Cdk1-cyclin B1 regulators. We observed that Cdc14A directly bound to and dephosphorylated Cdc25B, inhibiting its catalytic activity. Cdc14A also regulated the activity of Cdc25A at the G2/M transition. Our results indicate that Cdc14A phosphatase prevents premature activation of Cdk1 regulating Cdc25A and Cdc25B at the entry into mitosis.