Acetylation of histones of rat testis.

When [1-¹⁴C]acetate was injected into rats intratesticularly in the presence of cycloheximide to inhibit protein synthesis, the label was incorporated into histone fractions F2a1 and F3 and into non-histone chromosomal proteins of each of the following stages of spermatogenesis: spermatogonia-preleptotene spermatocytes, leptotene-zygotene-pachytene-diplotene primary spermatocytes, and spermatids. Acetylation of histones was particularly active in the spermatid stages. There was no significant incorporation of acetate into the lysine-rich histone fractions F1 and X₁.In early periods of in vivo incorporation of [³H]amino acids into histones the acetylated histone F2a1 fractions had higher specific activities than the main band of F2a1, but with the passage of time the label moved into the principal band to the extent that specific activities in the acetylated and principal bands were approximately equal at 6 days. However, at 24–36 days the specific activities were again higher in the acetylated bands than in the principal band of F2a1. These data support the conclusions of Candido, Louie, and Dixon, from experiments with trout testis, that acetylation of histone F2a1 may be important in the process of combination of this protein with DNA in chromatin at the spermatogonia-primary spermatocyte stage and also in the subsequent removal of this histone for replacement by protamines at the spermatid stage.[³H]Amino acids were incorporated into histone fractions X₁ and F1 at approximately equal rates, and there was no evidence that one of these fractions was a precursor of the other.Chromatin of the seminiferous epithelial cells of rat testis has a firmly bound acetylase which catalyzes the in vitro acetylation of histones F3 and F2a1 by acetyl CoA.     

Nonenzymatic acetylation of histones with acetyl phosphate and acetyl adenylate.

Nonenzymatic acetylation of calf-thymus lysine- and arginine-rich histones was demonstrated to occur when these proteins were incubated with [14C]acetyl phosphate and [14C]acetyl adenylate. The levels of acetylation depend on both pH and on reagent concentration. When acetyl [33P]phosphate and acetyl [3H]adenylate were used as reagents, we found neither histone phosphorylation nor adenylylation. Most of the radioactivity of 14C-labeled acetylated histones was recovered as Ne-acetyllysine. Furthermore, only a small amount of O-bound radioactivity was released by the 14C-labeled acetylated arginine-rich histone during treatment with hydroxylamine. Experiments on the acetylation of histones, in the presence of increasing salt concentration, gave different results for the two acetylating agents.     

Histone synthesis in early amphibian development: histone and DNA syntheses are not co-ordinated

The synthesis of basic proteins has been studied in the oocytes, eggs and embryos of the South African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. A group of newly synthesized proteins has been identified as histones by the following criteria: solubility properties; incorporation of [³H]lysine and [³H]arginine in the correct proportions, but lack of incorporation of [³H]tryptophan; co-cleotrophoresis with marker histones in various types of polyacrylamide gels, including a type run in two dimensions; peptide analysis of the arginine-rich fraction, F2A1. The four main histone fractions other than F1 were found to be synthesized at all stages of development. F1 histone synthesis was first detected at the late blastula stage.Rates of histone synthesis were estimated for the different stages of development and it was concluded that histone synthesis was not co-ordinated with DNA synthesis either temporally or quantitatively. Histone synthesis was unusual in the following major respects: histones were synthesized in oocytes, and yet in these cells DNA replication had not occurred for several months; histones were synthesized in activated or fertilized eggs at a rate far in excess (about 500 times) of the immediate requirements. We suggest that in order to provide enough histones for the late blastula embryo a store of histone is accumulated during the early cleavage stages and possibly during oogenesis.     

Histone variants and histone modifications in chromatin fractions from heterochromatin-rich Peromyscus cells

In order to investigate the relationship between condensed heterochromatin and histone modification by acetylation, phosphorylation and amino acid variation, chromatin from cultured Peromyscus eremicus cells, containing 35% constitutive heterochromatin, was fractionated into heterochromatin-enriched and heterochromatin-depleted fractions. The constitutive heterochromatin content of these fractions was determined from satellite DNA content. The distribution of phosphorylated and acetylated histones and amino acid variants of histone H2A in these chromatin fractions was examined by gel electrophoresis. Fractionation of histones demonstrated that endogenous histone phosphatase activity was high in chromatin fractions and could not be inhibited sufficiently to allow accurate histone phosphorylation measurements. However, sodium butyrate did inhibit deacetylation activity in the fractions, allowing histone acetylation measurements to be made. It was found that the constitutive heterochromatin content of these fractions was proportional to both their unacetylated H4 content and their more-hydrophobic H2A content. These observations support, by direct measurement, earlier experiments (Exp cell res 111 (1978) 373; 125 (1980) 377; 132 (1981) 201) suggesting that constitutive heterochromatin is enriched in unacetylated arginine-rich histones, and in the more hydrophobic variant of histone H2A.     

Specific changes in the biosynthesis and acetylation of nucleosomal histones in the early stages of embryogenesis of sea urchin.

Histones of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis were labelled in vivo with [¹⁴C]protein hydrolysate and [¹⁴C]sodium acetate at the developmental stages of blastula, gastrula and pluteus. They were further resolved by electrophoresis in 15% polyacrylamide gels in the presence of 0.9 M acetic acid, 8 M urea as well as in 20% polyacrylamide gels containing the same concentrations of acetic acid and urea, but in addition, 4.3 mM Triton X-100. On comparison of electrophoretic patterns with autoradiograms it was shown that during the early stages of differentiation the synthesis of several new subfractions of some of the histones takes place, namely of two of H1, of two of H2b and of nine of H2a. At the same time the electrophoretic pattern of the arginine-rich histones remained constant, H3 consisting of three and H4 of four subfractions. The basic reason for this heterogeneity seems to be the specific post-synthetic acetylation of the histones. At the blastula stage all the newly synthesized H4 molecules are equally acetylated, while the histone H3 molecules are acetylated to varying extents. After gastrulation both H3 and H4 are also subject to a different level of acetylation.     

Age-related effects on the incorporation of acetate into rat liver histones

Incorporation of sodium [³H]acetate into histones of rats was examined as a function of age. Incorporation was observed to decline with age up to 24 months, at which time a levelling occurred. Controls indicated that this decrease in histone acetylation could not be attributed to variability in isotope delivery to the liver or to alterations in intracellular ‘pools’ available for acetylation. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis established that, in all cases, acetate was incorporated primarily into histone fractions H3 and H4 and the pattern of incorporation exhibited age-dependent phenomena. H4 was predominantly labelled in 2 month animals, while in 12, 16 and 24 month animals H3 was more highly labelled; at 27 months the two fractions were labelled equally.Assessment of histone acetylase and deacetylase activities indicates that deacetylase activity increased with age.     

Purification and properties of a histone acetyltransferase from Artemia salina, highly efficient with H1 histone.

An histone acetyltransferase has been purified from nuclei of 40-h-old Artemia salina larvae. The enzyme is very unstable at 0 degrees C, requires free -SH groups for activity and is rapidly inactivated at 40 degrees C. The optimal pH for activity is 8.5 and the activity is half inhibited by millimolar concentrations of Mn2+, Ca2+ or Mg2+ or decimolar concentrations of Na+ and K+. The molecular weight of the enzyme, determined by gel filtration chromatography, changed with the ionic strength of the medium (280,000 in 10 mM Tris . HCl, 170,000 in 0.2 M KCl). The very-lysine-rich histone H1 is a better substrate acceptor than the arginine-rich histones H3 or H4. Under proper conditions, the enzyme can modify all the internal lysyl residues in histones H1 and H4. The acetylation of H1 is inhibited when all the other histone fractions are present in the assay mixture.     

Histone acetylation and heterochromatin content of cultured Peromyscus cells

In order to explore the relationship between unacetylated arginine-rich histones and condensed chromatin structure, the extent of histone acetylation was examined in cultured cell lines derived from three species of deer mice. These species differ considerably in their genomic content of heterochromatin but contain essentially the same euchromatin content. Cells of Peromyscus eremicus, containing 34–36% more constitutive heterochromatin than Peromyscus boylii or Peromyscus crinitus cells were found to contain 28–35% more unacetylated histone H4, 22–29% more unacetylated histone H3, and 18–22% more unacetylated histone H2B. This relationship between unacetylated histones and heterochromatin content was further explored by inducing hyperacetylation of P. eremicus and P. boylii histones through treatment of cells with 15 mM sodium butyrate for 24 h. It was found that the percentages of unacetylated histones H3 and H4 remaining after butyrate treatment were proportional to the amount of constitutive heterochromatin in the genome. These data support the concept that a small core of histones in constitutive heterochromatin is inaccessible to acetylation. It was also found that the acetylated state of isolated histones was sensitive to the method of histone extraction. Thus concern must be given to preparative procedures when studying histone acetylation in order to minimize these acetate losses.     

Histones from exponential and stationary L-cells. Evidence for metabolic heterogeneity of histone fractions retained after isolation of nuclei

Histones of exponential and G₁-arrested mouse L-cells were double-labeled with either [³H]lysine and [³²P]phosphate or with [¹⁴C]arginine and [³H]acetate in order to investigate cell cycle-dependent changes in rates of synthesis and metabolic modifications as well as the effect of the method of nuclear isolation on retention of the labeled fractions. Results indicate that newly synthesized lysine-rich histones incorporate ³²P at the highest rate. However, phosphorylation can also be detected in G₁-arrested cells and in the case of F_2b, F_1⁰, and F_1¹, with no detectable new synthesis.On the other hand, acetylation proceeded at similar rates in both exponential and stationary cells with the exception of F_{2a 2} and F₃ which showed higher acetylation levels in the latter.In relation to the method used for nuclear isolation, we observed that, even in cases where no difference in the relative amount of a given histone could be detected, the species recovered were not identical. We conclude that none of the methods commonly employed retains all of the histones. In general, the acetylated species appear to be best preserved at a higher divalent cation concentration while the newly synthesized ones are better conserved at lower ionic strengths.     

Properties of the genome in normal and SV40 transformed WI38 human diploid fibroblasts. II. Metabolism and binding of histones.

Composition, metabolism and extractability of histone fractions from WI38 human diploid fibroblasts and SV40 transformed WI38 fibroblasts are compared. Two alternate procedures were used for isolation of nuclei which allow for either optimal recovery of arginine-rich histones F3 (III) and F2a1 (IV) or for optimal retention of lysine-rich F1 (I) and slightly lysine rich F2b (II b2). While the relative amount of each histone fraction was found to be similar in normal and SV40 transformed cells, substantial increases in the levels of F 3 acetylation and F1 and F2a2 phosphorylation are reported for the histones of SV40 transformed cells. Differences in extractability of arginine-rich histones with 0.25 M HCl are also reported. While F 3 is extracted more rapidly than F 2a1 from nuclei of normal WI38 fibroblasts, the reverse is true in SV40 transformed WI38 cells. These differences are discussed in relation to modification reactions, binding of histones to DNA and SV40-induced alterations in gene readout.     

Turnover of chromatin proteins in rat liver during induction of RNA synthesis by electrostimulation of the hypothalamus

It has been shown that the induction of D-RNA synthesis in rat liver nuclei by electrostimulation of hypothalamus is accompanied by a decrease in chromatin protein synthesis and an increase in phosphorylation and acetylation of chromatin proteins. The decrease of the histone synthesis is mainly due to the decrease of [14C]lysine and [14C]alanine incorporation into histones H1 and H4. The relationship between H1, H2b-H3, H2a and H4 histone fractions remains unchanged. Electrostimulation of hypothalamus increases acetylation of H2a and H4 histone fractions and phosphorylation of all histones with the exception of histone H1.     

Acetylation of histones in isolated avian erythroid nuclei.

1. Suspensions of avian erythroid nuclei, of high purity, were prepared. Acetylation of histones was observed when nuclei were incubated in the presence of [1-14C]acetyl CoA, but not in the presence of sodium [3H]acetate. 2.The acetylation reaction was very heat labile and reproduced the in vivo reaction with high fidelity. The reaction was strongly inhibited by divalent cations and cysteine. 3. Studies, in which intact cells were pre-incubated with cycloheximide prior to the isolation of nuclei, suggested that histone acetylation in isolated erythroid nuclei was largely independent of histone synthesis. 4. The pH profile suggested the presence of at least two histone acetyltransferases, with pH optima at 8.0 and 8.6. Acetylation of histone H4 appeared to be favoured at pH 8.0. 5. Studies on histone acetylation in isolated nuclei should be very useful in correlating observations on histone acetylation in vivo, with experiments using purified histone acetyltransferases.     

Acetylation of histones during spermatogenesis in the rat

Acetate was actively incorporated into rat testis histones when testis cells were prepared by the trypsinization technique in the presence of [³H]acetate. The acetylation was enhanced by 10 mm sodium butyrate. Although histones H3 and H4 were the only histones which incorporated high levels of acetate, the testis-specific histones TH2B and TH3 also appeared to incorporate acetate. This was shown by electrophoresis of the histones on polyacrylamide gels containing Triton X-100. Results, obtained from analysis of histones by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, confirmed a recent report (P. K. Trostle-Weige, M. L. Meistrich, W. A. Brock, K. Nishioka, and J. W. Bremer, (1982) J. Biol. Chem.257, 5560–5567) that TH2A was a testis-specific histone. The results also confirmed the H2A nature of a testis-enriched histone band, previously designated X2. When histones from populations of cells enriched in specific testis cell types, representing various stages of spermatogenesis, were examined, the patterns of acetylation varied dramatically. Very high levels of acetate were incorporated into multiacetylated species of histone H4 from a population of cells enriched in transition stage spermatids (steps 9–12) compared to the levels of acetate incorporated into H4 from round spermatids (steps 1–8) and earlier stages of spermatogenesis, where acetate was incorporated primarily into the monoacetylated species of H4. Thus, a striking correlation exists between the time of hyperacetylation of histone H4 and the time of removal of histones for their replacement by the basic spermatidal transition proteins designated TP, TP2, and TP4. Hyperacetylation of histone H4 may facilitate the removal of the entire histone complement during the protein transition. In any case, it must be an obligatory step in the dramatic process.     

Characterization of pea histone deacetylases

The present paper is the first report on histone deacetylases from plants. Three enzyme fractions with histone deacetylase activity (HD0, HD1 and HD2) have been partially purified from pea (Pisum sativum) embryonic axes. They deacetylate biologically acetylated chicken histones and, to a lesser extent, chemically acetylated histones, this being a criterion of their true histone deacetylase nature. The three enzymes are able to accept nucleosomes as substrates. HD1 is not inhibited by n-butyrate up to 50 mM, whereas HD0 and HD2 are only slightly inhibited, thereby establishing a clear difference to animal histone deacetylases. The three activities are inhibited by acetate, Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions and mercurials, but are only scarcely affected by polyamines, in strong contrast with yeast histone deacetylase. Several criteria have been used to obtain cumulative evidence that HD0, HD1 and HD2 actually are three distinct enzymes. In vitro experiments with free histones show that HD0 deacetylates all four core histones, whereas HD1 and HD2 show a clear preference for H2A and H2B, the arginine-rich histones being deacetylated more slowly.     

Uncoordinate synthesis of histone H1 in cells arrested in the G1 phase

It has been known for several years that DNA replication and histone synthesis occur concomitantly in cultured mammalian cells. Normally all five classes of histones are synthesized coordinately. However, mouse myeloma cells, synchronized by starvation for isoleucine, synthesize increased amounts of histone H1 relative to the four nucleosomal core histones. This unscheduled synthesis of histone H1 is reduced within 1 h after refeeding isoleucine, and is not a normal component of G1. The synthesis of H1 increases coordinately again with other histones during the S phase. The DNA synthesis inhibitors, cytosine arabinoside and hydroxyurea, block all histone synthesis in S-phase cells. The levels of histone H1 mRNA, relative to the other histone mRNAs, is increased in isoeleucine-starved cells and decreases rapidly after refeeding isoleucine. The increased incorporation of histone H1 is at least partially due to the low isoleucine content of histone H1. Starvation of cells for lysine resulted in a decrease in H1 synthesis relative to core histones. Again the ratio was altered on refeeding the amino acid. 3T3 cells starved for serum also incorporated only H1 histones into chromatin. The ratio of different H1 proteins also changed. The synthesis of the H1⁰ protein was predominant in G₀ cells, and reduced in S-phase cells. These data indicate the metabolism of H1 is independent of the other histones when cell growth is arrested.     

Epigenetic characteristics of bovine donor cells for nuclear transfer: levels of histone acetylation

Donor cell type, cell-cycle stage, and passage number of cultured cells all affect the developmental potential of cloned embryos. Because acetylation of the histones on nuclear chromatin is an important aspect of gene activation, the present study investigated the differences in histone acetylation of bovine fibroblast and cumulus cells at various passages and cell-cycle stages. The acetylation was qualitatively analyzed by epifluorescent confocal microscopy and quantitatively by immunofluorescent flow cytometry. Specifically, we studied levels of histone H4 acetylated at lysine 8 and histone H3 acetylated at lysine 18; acetylation at these lysine residues is among the most common for these histone molecules. We also studied levels of linker histone H1 in donor cells. Our results show that stage of cell cycle, cell type, and number of cell passages all had an effect on histone content. Histone H1 and acetyl histone H3 increased with cell passage (passages 5-15) in G0/G1- and G2/M-stage cumulus and fibroblast cells. We also found that acetyl histone H4 was lower in early versus late cell passages (passage 5 vs. 15) for G0/G1-stage cumulus cells. In both cell types examined, acetyl histones increased with cell-cycle progression from G0/G1 into the S and G2/M phases. These results indicate that histone acetylation status is remodeled by in vitro cell culture, and this may have implications for nuclear transfer.     

Actions of exogenous histones and other proteins on [3H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA of Novikoff hepatoma cells.

The effects of exogenous proteins on the incorporation of [3H]-thymidine into DNA was studied in Novikoff hepatoma ascites cells incubated in Eagle's minimal essential medium. A liver cytosol fraction (8 mg protein/ml) caused approximately 80% inhibition of isotope incorporation. The inhibitory activity of cytosol fractions from Morris hepatomas 9618A2, 5123C, and 20 were inversely related to their growth rate. Under conditions in which there appeared to be a density dependent inhibition of growth, a mean 10-20% stimulation of isotope incorporation was observed after addition of total calf thymus histones and individual fractions in the concentration range of 100-400 microgram/ml. In experiments with lower cell concentrations, a 60% or greater increase in [3H]-thymidine incorporation could be obtained with total calf thymus histone and with F1 and arginine-rich histones from rat liver. At concentrations of 1-2 mg/ml, histones inhibited DNA synthesis. Bovine serum albumin had little effect on DNA synthesis. Polylysine caused an 80-90% inhibition at a concentration of 1 mg/ml, but stimulatory effects were detected under certain conditions at 10 microgram/ml. The results suggest critical dependence on the ratio of cell and exogenous protein concentration in the action of proteins on DNA synthesis.