The effect of an emergent macrophyte (Typha angustifolia) on sediment resuspension in a shallow north temperate lake

1. The effects of emergent macrophytes on water turbidity and sediment resuspension in the shallow Kirkkojärvi basin of Lake Hiidenvesi were studied with sediment traps, and concomitant sediment and water samples. The study was conducted during May–August in three different zones of a stand of the emergent Typha angustifolia .
2. Within the stand (5 m from the edge), both the concentration of suspended solids and the rate of sediment resuspension were significantly lower than at the edge and outside the stand (5 m from the edge). The differences between the zones increased towards the end of summer together with the growing stem density. During the study period (82 days), 2210 g dw m⁻² of sediment was resuspended in the outer zone. At the edge and in the inner zone, the corresponding numbers were 1414 and 858 g dw m⁻², respectively.
3. With the resuspended sediment, 39.4 mg P  m⁻² day⁻¹ was brought to the water column outside the stand, 22.4 mg P  m⁻² day⁻¹ at the edge and 13.4 mg P  m⁻² day⁻¹ within the stand.
4. In early summer, the concentration of suspended solids had a highly significant positive effect on soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) concentration in the water, whereas in late summer no effect was found. During the study period, phosphorus retention by emergent macrophyte stands corresponded to 3–5% of the present annual external phosphorus loading of the Kirkkojärvi basin.     

Metabolism of a desert stream

SUMMARY. Rates of photosynthesis and community respiration were determined for benthic assemblages in Sycamore Creek, a Sonoran Desert stream in Arizona. Benthos in this stream can be separated into (1) mats of Cladophora glomerata and associated epiphytes and (2) assemblages of epipelic diatoms and blue-green algae. Community respiration and net photosynthesis were measured for these assemblages using submerged light-dark chambers in situ . Multiple regression analysis was used to predict (1) gross photosynthesis as a function of photosynthetically active radiation, temperature and chlorophyll-α concentration; and (2) community respiration as a function of temperature and biomass.
Calculations suggest that Sycamore Creek is autotrophic during the summer ( P/R = 1.7) and that the rates of gross photosynthesis ( P =8.5 g O₂ m⁻² day⁻¹) and community respiration ( R = 5.1 g O₂ m⁻² day⁻¹) are high for a small stream. Considerable difference exists between the Cladophora mat assemblages, in which mean P is 12.5gO₂m⁻² day⁻¹and the P/R ratio is 2.3, and the epipelic assemblages in which mean P is 4.4 g O₂m⁻² day⁻¹ and P/R is 0.96. The high rate of gross photosynthesis, low litter inputs, high biomass of algae and the intermittent but severe floods that characterize Sycamore Creek indicate that this stream and other similar desert streams are net exporters of organic matter and are, thereby, truly autotrophic stream ecosystems.     

Life cycle, growth, mortality and production of Ephemerella major Klapalek (Ephemeroptera) in a trout stream in Belgium

SUMMARY. 1. The life cycle of Ephemerella major Klapalek in a chalk trout stream in Belgium took 1 year. Emergence was highly synchronized with a flight period from mid-May to mid-June. Tiny nymphs occurred from June to late August.
2. The mean instantaneous growth rate was high in autumn (3.6% wet wt day⁻¹), very low from November to February (0.8% wet wt day⁻¹) and high until emergence (2.3% wet wt day⁻¹); short day length seemed to be the major factor reducing growth rate during winter.
3. Mortality was close to zero during winter and 1.4—1.7% day⁻¹during other seasons. Total mortality from egg to adult was 99.6%.
4. The annual production was about 9g wet wt m⁻² year⁻¹ and the annual P/ ratio was 7.5. There was good agreement between the production values estimated by four methods. Production rate was highest in May (13 mg wet wt m⁻² day⁻¹) and zero in February.     

The seasonal biomass and productivity of the submerged macrophytes in a polluted Wisconsin stream

SUMMARY 1. We measured biomass and light/dark bottle productivity of macrophytes in a Wisconsin stream throughout one growing season. Except for a brief period in early spring when a Cladophora glomerata -filamentous algal community was dominant, Potamogeton pectinatus was the dominant macrophyte species in Badfish Creek.
2. Maximum community biomass was 710 g DW m⁻², with a maximum above ground biomass of 620 g DW m⁻² and a maximum below ground biomass of 120 g DW m⁻². Annual productivity was estimated at 1435 g DW m⁻² year⁻¹, with a calculated P/B of 2.01.
3. In situ net production averaged 2.83g C g AFDW⁻¹ h⁻¹ Net positive carbon gain by the P. pectinatus community occurred when water temperatures were above 15°C, and daylength at least 12h. This is correlated to the onset of tuber germination in spring, and the point of maximal biomass decline in autumn.     

Vertical distribution and abundance of invertebrates within the sandy substrate of a low-gradient headwater stream

SUMMARY. 1 The vertical distribution of invertebrates (>0.053 mm) was studied in a sandy-bottomed, first-order stream on the Coastal Plain of Virginia, U.S.A. Invertebrate species composition, abundance and bio-mass were determined monthly over one year at sediment depth intervals of 0–1, 1–5, 5–15,15–30 and 30–40 cm.
2. The subsurface community was numerically dominated by species of Chironomidae, Nematoda and Crustacea, while much of the biomass was due to early instars of several species of Trichoptera.
3. Invertebrate density and biomass decreased significantly with depth in the substrate (ANOVA; P <0.05). Annual mean density decreased from 1,346,844 individuals m⁻³ at the surface to 13,578 individuals m⁻³ at 15–30 cm. Annual mean biomass decreased from 66.30 g m⁻³ at the surface to 0.44 g m⁻³ at 15–30 cm.
4. Dissolved oxygen decreased markedly from the surface to the 5 cm depth in the substrate, anaerobic conditions often occurring below 10 cm. Density and biomass both showed a significant positive relationship with dissolved oxygen concentration (Linear regression; P <0.05).
5. Physical forces were important in structuring the subsurface invertebrate community. Besides low dissolved oxygen concentration, sediment scouring resulting from storm discharge dramatically reduced density and biomass     

Phytoplankton production and growth rate in Lake Tanganyika: evidence of a decline in primary productivity in recent decades

1. This study focused on phytoplankton production in Lake Tanganyika. We provide new estimates of daily and annual primary production, as well as growth rates of phytoplankton, and we compare them with values published in former studies.
2. Chlorophyll- a (chl- a ) in the mixed layer ranged from 5 to 120 mg chl- a  m⁻² and varied significantly between rainy and dry seasons. Particulate organic carbon concentrations were significantly higher in the south basin (with 196 and 166 mg C m⁻³ in the dry and the rainy season, respectively) than in the north basin (112 and 109 mg C m⁻³, respectively).
3. Carbon : phosphorus (C : P) ratios varied according to season. Phosphorus limitation seemed to occur more frequently than nitrogen limitation, especially during the rainy season. Severe P deficiencies were rare.
4. Measured particulate daily primary production ranged from 110 to 1410 mg C m⁻² day⁻¹; seasonal contrasts were well marked in the north basin, but less in the south basin, where primary production peaks occurred also in the rainy season. Estimates of annual primary production, based on daily primary production calculated from chl- a and water transparency, gave values lower than those reported in previous studies. Picophytoplankton accounted on average for 56% of total particulate production in the south basin during the wet season of 2003.
5. Phytoplankton growth rates, calculated from primary production, ranged from 0.055 to 0.282 day⁻¹; these are lower than previously published values for Lake Tanganyika.     

Occurrence of phosphorus and its potential remohilization in the littoral sediments of a productive English lake

SUMMARY. 1. Vertical profiles of pH were measured at nine shallow water (<5m) locations in Esthwaite Water. These indicate strong gradients of pH near the sediment water interface suggesting a marked buffering capacity of the sediments.
2. Thirteen littoral sediment cores were horizontally sectioned and sequentially extracted (0.5 M NaHCO₃, 0.1 M NaOH, 1 M HCI) and analysed for soluble reactive phosphorus. The core sections were also analysed for total phosphorus and per cent organic content to determine the vertical and areal variability of phosphorus within the littoral sediments of Esthwaite Water.
3. The rate of release of phosphorus from intact sediment cores was measured in the laboratory as a function of the pH of overlying water, yielding the relationship log K=0.54 pH−3.94, K=mg Pm⁻²day⁻¹. The maximum release rate measured was 75 mg P m⁻² day⁻² at pH = 10.5.
4. Experiments on sediment slurries indicate that the release of phosphorus at pH 10 is rapid with approximately 50% of the total NaHCO₃+ NaOH extractable phosphorus being released within 3 h.
5. Phosphorus release from the littoral sediments may equal or exceed external sources plus hypolimnetic inputs during periods of high pH associated with times of maximum algal biomass.     

Productivity of a herbivorous pupfish population (Cyprinodon nevadensis) in a warm desert stream

Production and food intake by an herbivorous pupfish population ( Cyprinodon nevadensis amargosae ) living in the outflow of a thermal artesian well (Tecopa Bore) near Death Valley, California is described. Water issues from the ground at 47.5° C and cools 8.12° C before leaving the study area 300 m from the source. High stream temperatures restricted the pupfish population to some 41 % of the study area, with a resulting mean density of 89 individuals m⁻² (range = 13 to 196m⁻²). Biomass estimates ranged from 7 kcal m⁻² to 42 kcal m⁻². The mean annual standing crop of pupfishes (24 kcal m⁻²) turned over about five times annually. Growth rates were highest in juveniles (♂= 9.5% day⁻¹) and slowest in large adults (♀= 08% day⁻¹). Monthly production ranged from 22 kcal m⁻² in September to 3 kcal m⁻² in July and August. Pupfish in Tecopa Bore fed on algae and detritus, ingesting 1941 kcal m⁻² yr⁻¹ or 17.5% of the annual net primary production. 119 kcal m⁻² yr⁻¹ was deposited in growth. This latter value is approximately ten times greater than values previously reported for large carnivorous fishes but is comparable lo values reported for herbivorous fishes under pond culture.     

The influence of drought on the fish and invertebrate populations of an upland stream in Wales

SUMMARY. 1. The exceptionally dry summer of 1976 presented an opportunity to assess the impact of drought on the fauna of an unregulated stream in Wales.
2. Total number of macroinvertebrates varied from 1808 m⁻² in September 1976 to 7412m⁻² in August 1977. Two main effects of drought were observed: an initial reduction in abundance during the drought and a change in community structure in the following year, probably through impaired reproduction.
3. Trout density ranged from 0.075±0.028 to 0.402±0.093 m⁻² and salmon parr density varied between 0.014±0.004 and 0.414±0.119 m⁻². The only detrimental effect of the drought on the fish fauna was the elimination of the 1976 year class of young salmon. probably due to prolonged high water temperature.     

Population dynamics and production of Sialis lutaria L. (Megaloptera) in the Danish River Suså

SUMMARY. 1. Populations of Stalls lutaria L. were sampled quantitatively at about monthly intervals during 3 years at two localities in the macrophyte rich River Suså, Denmark.
2. The life cycle was univoltine. The larvae hatched in June-July, and the initial S. lutaria population densities varied between 10 and 370 ind. m⁻². These differences were probably due to extreme variations in stream discharge during the period of recruitment, high velocities preventing the small swimming larvae from reaching the sediment.
3. The S. lutaria rate of elimination varied between 0.11 and 1.47% d⁻¹at the two localities. The high rate of elimination was possibly due to fish predation.
4. The growth rates varied between 0.54 and 15% d⁻¹. Growth rates differed between localities and years.
5. Numbers of potential prey organisms were not higher in sample units with S. lutaria than in sample units without S. lutaria . Numbers of leeches, which were potential competitors, did not differ significantly in sample units with and without S. lutaria .
6. Production of S. lutaria varied between 0.16 and 2.49 g ash free dry weight m⁻² y⁻¹, and the P/ ratios varied between 3.0 and 7.3 y⁻¹. The P/ ratios increased significantly with increasing rate of elimination.     

Continuous drift samples of macroinvertebrates in a large river, the Danube in Austria

SUMMARY 1. A new method is described for sampling the drift in large rivers continuously and automatically, using equipment based on the marine, continuous plankton sampler of Hardy (1936).
2. Between April and November 1989, about 790 h were sampled continuously, equivalent to a water volume of 2937m³ and the total catch was 527 drifting macroinvertebrates, in forty-nine taxa. Twenty-five of these taxa are recorded in the drift for the first time and twenty-eight of the drifting taxa were present in benthos samples from the Danube.
3. Total drift density varied between 12 and 31 animals per 100m³ of water sampled throughout the year, with a maximum of 31 animals in May, The composition of major faunal groups showed a significant seasonal pattern, with Oligochaeta and Diptera predominant in spring, Crustacea and Insecta in summer and only Crustacea in autumn. The overall density of the macrozoobenthos from October 1986 to December 1987 was about 19360 animals m⁻² and the proportion of total benthos animals, drifting at any instant in time, ranged from 0.0026 to 0.0064%.
4. The relationship between drift density day⁻¹ and mean daily discharge was described by a power-function. Total mean drift rate of macroinvertebrates in the Danube was estimated to be 13 600 000 animals per 24 h and the mean drift distance was estimated to vary between about 4 and 31 m, dependent on the animal group and the water velocity.
5. No obvious consistent diel pattern could be established from the continuous samples, and no marked diel rhythm could be detected for Oligochaeta, Diptera larvae and Crustacea.     

Biomass and oxygen dynamics of the epiphyte community in a Danish lowland stream

SUMMARY. 1. We examined the abundance and oxygen metabolism of epiphytic organisms on the dominant macrophyte, Potamogeton pectinatus , in headwaters of the eutrophic River Suså. Microbenthic algae were abundant in the stream during spring and macrophytes during summer.
2. The low macrophyte biomass in spring supported a dense epiphyte cover whereas the high macrophyte biomass during summer had a thin epiphyte cover of 10–100-fold lower abundance per unit area of macrophyte surface. The epiphyte community was dominated by microalgae in spring and by heterotrophs, probably bacteria, during summer. This seasonal shift was shown by pronounced reductions of the chlorophyll a content (from 2–3% to 0.1–0.7% of organic DW), the gross photosynthetic rate (from 20–85 to 3–15 mg O₂, g-¹ organic DW h⁻¹) and the ratio of gross photosynthesis to dark respiration in the epiphyte community (from 5–18 to 1). The reduced contributions of epiphytic microalgae correlated with reduced light availability during summer.
3. Both the density and the photosynthetic activity of epiphytic algae were low on a stream area basis relative to those of microbenthic algae and macrophytes. Rapid variations in water velocity and extensive light attenuation in water and macrophyte stands probably constrained the development of epiphytic algae. The epiphyte community was more important in overall stream respiration, contributing c. 10% to total summer respiration and c. 20% to summer respiration within the predominantly heterotrophic microbial communities on sediments and macrophyte surfaces.     

Grazing by oligochaetes and snails on epiphytes

SUMMARY. 1. The isotope ³³P was used to assess the effect of grazitig by oligochaetes (mainly Stylaria lacttstris L.) and the snail, Lymnaea peregra (Muller), on epiphytes within an Equisetum fluviatile L. stand.
2. Two 1 m² polystyrene enclosures were set up within the emergent macrophyte zone of the lake. At the start of the experiment ³³P-solution was mixed with the water in both tanks. Algal and animal samples for ³³P- analysis were collected during the peak occurrence of epiphytes in June.
3. Phosphorus release rates from the animals through defaecation and excretion were measured in the laboratory. The grazing rate of oligochaetes was 2.2–4.1 mg P m⁻² (of bottom) d⁻¹ of which about two - thirds was released and recycled. The oligochaete density ranged from 13,400 to 20,900 m⁻². The snails (25 ind. m⁻²) grazed 1.2-1.5 mg P m⁻²d⁻¹of whieh about a quarter was released through defaecation and excretion.
4. Daily consumption by the oligochaetes and snails corresponded to 22–45% of the average phosphorus uptake by the epiphytes.     

Production of a stream shredder, Peltoperla maria (Plecoptera: Peltoperlidae) in disturbed and undisturbed hardwood catchments

SUMMARY. (1) The average benthic density of Peltoperla maria in an undisturbed southern Appalachian stream was more than twice that of a nearby stream draining a previously clear-cul catchment in its tenth year of natural secondary succession.
(2) Peltoperla production estimates, using three methods, do not show a significant difference in production between streams draining the two catchments. We attribute these results to quicker growth and slightly higher densities of larger nymphs in the disturbed stream. Production estimates for the disturbed stream ranged from 498 to 560 mg (ash free dry weight) m⁻²y⁻¹ while those for the undisturbed stream were 41–4–515 mg m⁻² y⁻¹.
(3) Our results reinforce the view that conclusions based solely upon numerical densities may lead to erroneus interpretations about the roles organisms play in ecosystems.
(4) Annual frass production by this shredder is about 20 times (10 g m⁻² y⁻¹) the secondary production of P. maria.     

Oxygen and nitrate respiration in a reed swamp sediment from a eutrophic lake

Seasonal measurements of the oxygen and nitrate uptake by a reed swamp sediment were carried out in a shallow, eutrophic Danish lake, Arreskov Sø. The oxidation of organic carbon in the sediment by aerobic and nitrate respiration was 290 and 188 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ respectively. During winter, nitrate respiration amounted to 94% of the total carbon oxidation, whereas it was zero during summer. On an annual basis nitrate respiration constituted 39% of total respiration. Sediment nitrate uptake was correlated to nitrate concentration. In consequence of this the nitrate uptake rates varied during the year from zero in summer to 55 mg N m⁻² d⁻¹ in spring.
Oxygen uptake rates varied from 30 to 250 mg O₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ during the year, with a maximum uptake in August. The oxygen uptake per year was calculated to 860 g O₂ m⁻². The oxygen uptake rate was correlated to lake temperature and Kjeldahl nitrogen content of the sediment. The oxygen uptake rate, however, showed no correlation with loss on ignition of the sediment. A Q₁₀-value of 2.2 was found for lake measurements in the temperature interval of 5–15°C. The corresponding O₁₀-value in the laboratory was 2.6. A high microbial biomass indicated by the maximum content of Kjeldahl nitrogen and the lowest ratio of loss on ignition on Kjeldahl nitrogen appeared in late August, when the maximum oxygen uptake occurred. The oxygen uptake rate increased during the time interval from sampling to the start of the experiments.     

Very high secondary production at a lake outlet

SUMMARY. 1. Larvae and pupae of Simulium noelleri Fried, coated the concrete of parts of an artificial lake outlet in southern England.
2. In the first two (of three) summer generations, development was synchronous and this allowed the calculation of their secondary production by the instantaneous growth method. The production of the two summer generations was, respectively, 229.1 g C m⁻² (7.4 g C m⁻²day⁻¹) and 185.5 g C m⁻² (8.8 g C m⁻² day⁻¹) The contribution of the third summer generation, and the overwintering generation, to annual production would be less than that of the first two summer generations. Nevertheless, annual production will have exceeded 500 g C m⁻² at this site.
3. Larvae are suspension feeders and they captured the rich supply of particulate and dissolved organic material which passed over them after export from the lake. As food is brought to the larvae they only require space for attachment and can thus build up very high population densities (which exceeded 1 × 10⁶ m⁻² on some occasions during the summer). The high population densities result in a high biomass and hence in the high levels of production.     

Development of leaf thickness for Plectranthus parviflorus – Influence of photosynthetically active radiation

Photosynthetically active radiation (PhAR) is apparently the environmental factor having the greatest influence on leaf thickness for Plectranthus parviflorus Henckel (Labiatae). A four-fold increase in leaf thickness from 280 to 1170 μm occurred as the PhAR was raised from 1.3 to 32.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹. Compared to a constant PhAR of 2.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹, a PhAR of 32.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹ for one week during the first week (with return to 2.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹ during the second and third weeks) led to an increase in final leaf thickness by 323 μm (to 802 μm). When increased PhAR was applied during the second week the increase in final thickness over the control was 217 μm, and when increased PhAR was applied during the third week it was 99 μm. However, leaf thickness was not simply responding to total daily PhAR, since a leaf 450 μm thick could occur at a low instantaneous PhAR for a long daytime (total daily PhAR of 1.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹) and at a high PhAR for a short daytime (4.5 mol m⁻² day⁻¹). Total daily CO₂ uptake (net photosynthesis) was approximately the same in the two cases, suggesting that this is an important factor underlying the differences in leaf thickness. Leaf thickness is physiologically important, since thicker leaves tend to have greater mesophyll surface area per unit leaf area ( A ^mes/ A ) and hence higher photosynthetic rates.     

Lough Ennell: laboratory studies on sediment phosphorus release under varying mixing, aerobic and anaerobic conditions

SUMMARY. 1. The exchange of phosphorus between the epilimnetic (shallow zone) sediment and water column in Lough Ennell was investigated in laboratory experiments using five intact cores.
2. Variations in water mixing, sediment suspension and aerobic–anaerobic oxygen status in the water column and its effects on sediment phosphorus release rates were determined.
3. Experimental results indicated that phosphorus release is possible under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Aerobic release (0.025 mg P l⁻¹ over 5 days) was possible up to the point when mass resuspension of sediment occurred. Anaerobic release for the same period and mixing conditions was 0.183 mg Pl⁻¹.
4. The release rate under aerobic conditions at 10°C equates to an internal areal loading of 0.134 g P m⁻² yr^−1, which is approximately 17% and 30% of the average total phosphorus and orthophosphate loadings respectively for the period 1974–79.
5. The results clearly implicate aerobic inorganic phosphorus release from the epilimnetic sediments as a significant source of this nutrient to the overlying water column and is likely a major factor in the continuing eutrophic status in the lake.     

Hatching time and growth of Nemurellapictetii (Plecoptera: Nemouridae) in the laboratory and a Lake District stream

SUMMARY. 1. Nemurella pictetii Klapæplek took 2 years to complete its life cycle in both the laboratory and a small stream in the English Lake District.
2. Hatching time (days after oviposition for 10%. 50% and 90% of the eggs to hatch) and hatching period (days between dates for 10% and 90% hatched) decreased with increasing water temperature in the laboratory, and the relationships were well described by a power-law. Estimates of the mean time for 50% hatching in the stream varied between 16 and 31 days after oviposition. depending on temperature.
3. Larval instars numbered fifteen for males and seventeen for females with a constant ratio of 1.18 between successive instars (conformed with Dyar's rule). Larval growth was exponential at four constant temperatures in the laboratory; mean instantaneous growth rates were 0.40±0.01% day⁻¹ at 5.9°C, 0.43±0.01% day⁻¹ at 8.2°C, 0.46±0.01% day⁻¹ at 12. 1°C. 0.56±0.02%day⁻¹ at 19.8°C. No larvae survived after instar XI at 19.8°C.
4. Larval growth was exponential in the stream and was scarcely affected by variations in water temperature (range 4.2 -14.0°C); mean growth rates for three year-classes were 0.41±0.02, 0.43±0.08, 0.54±0.05% day⁻¹. Their similarity to laboratory growth rates under optimum conditions suggests that the availability of resources, such as food and space, was not restricting growth in the stream.     

Production and litter processing by crayfish in an Appalachian mountain stream

SUMMARY 1. Mean annual density and biomass () of Cambarus bartonii in an Appalachian mountain stream (U.S.A.) was 12 individuals m⁻² and 1669 mg (ash-free dry weight) m⁻².
2. Annual production ( P ) of C bartonii was 961 mg AFDW m⁻². Despite high biomass, low growth rates resulted in low production and a low P/ ratio of 0.58.
3. While C bartonii constituted 61% of the total macroinvertebrate biomass, it contributed only 13% of annual community secondary production.
4. Litter processing was positively related to temperature and crayfish size. Cambariis bartotnii was estimated to comminute 36 g m⁻² y⁻¹ of leaf litter (>1 mm²) to 24 g m−^>2 y⁻¹ fine particulate material (<1 mm²). The annual pattern of litter comminution by crayfish was regulated by temperature. As a result, >5()% of shredding activity by crayfish occurred from June to September which was also the period of lowest litter standing crops and activity of other shredding macroinvertebrates.
5. We speculate that during summer crayfish play an important role in temperate woodland streams by converting slowly processed leaf litter species (e.g. Rhododendron ) to fine particles which are then available to collector-gatherers (e.g. Chironomidae, Oligochaeta).