Murine protein serine/threonine kinase 38 activates apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 via Thr 838 phosphorylation

Murine protein serine/threonine kinase 38 (MPK38) is a member of the AMP-activated protein kinase-related serine/threonine kinase family that plays an important role in various cellular processes, including cell cycle, signaling pathways, and self-renewal of stem cells. Here we demonstrate a functional association between MPK38 and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1). The physical association between MPK38 and ASK1 was mediated through their carboxyl-terminal regulatory domains and was increased by H(2)O(2) or tumor necrosis factor alpha treatment. The use of kinase-dead MPK38 and ASK1 mutants revealed that MPK38-ASK1 complex formation was dependent on the activities of both kinases. Ectopic expression of wild-type MPK38, but not kinase-dead MPK38, stimulated ASK1 activity by Thr(838) phosphorylation and enhanced ASK1-mediated signaling to both JNK and p38 kinases. However, the phosphorylation of MKK6 and p38 by MPK38 was not detectable. In addition, MPK38-mediated ASK1 activation was induced through the increased interaction between ASK1 and its substrate MKK3. MPK38 also stimulated H(2)O(2)-mediated apoptosis by enhancing the ASK1 activity through Thr(838) phosphorylation. These results suggest that MPK38 physically interacts with ASK1 in vivo and acts as a positive upstream regulator of ASK1.     

PDK1 protein phosphorylation at Thr354 by murine protein serine-threonine kinase 38 contributes to negative regulation of PDK1 protein activity

Murine protein serine-threonine kinase 38 (MPK38) is a member of the AMP-activated protein kinase-related serine/threonine kinase family, which acts as cellular energy sensors. In this study, MPK38-induced PDK1 phosphorylation was examined to elucidate the biochemical mechanisms underlying phosphorylation-dependent regulation of 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1) activity. The results showed that MPK38 interacted with and inhibited PDK1 activity via Thr(354) phosphorylation. MPK38-PDK1 complex formation was mediated by the amino-terminal catalytic kinase domain of MPK38 and the pleckstrin homology domain of PDK1. This activity was dependent on insulin, a PI3K/PDK1 stimulator, as well as various apoptotic stimuli, including TNF-α, H(2)O(2), thapsigargin, and ionomycin. MPK38 inhibited PDK1 activity in a kinase-dependent manner and alleviated PDK1-mediated suppression of TGF-β (or ASK1) signaling, probably via the phosphorylation of PDK1 at Thr(354). In addition, MPK38-mediated inhibition of PDK1 activity was accompanied by the modulation of PDK1 binding to its positive and negative regulators, serine/threonine kinase receptor-associated protein and 14-3-3, respectively. Together, these findings suggest an important role for MPK38-mediated phosphorylation of PDK1 in the negative regulation of PDK1 activity.     

Thioredoxin inhibits MPK38-induced ASK1, TGF‐β, and p53 function in a phosphorylation-dependent manner

Murine protein serine–threonine kinase 38 (MPK38) is a member of the AMP‐activated protein kinase-related serine/threonine kinase family. The factors that regulate MPK38 activity and function are not yet elucidated. Here, thioredoxin (Trx) was shown to be a negative regulator of MPK38. The redox-dependent association of MPK38 and Trx was mediated through the C‐terminal domain of MPK38. Single and double amino acid substitution mutagenesis of MPK38 (C286S, C339S, C377S, and C339S/C377S) and Trx (C32S, C35S, and C32S/C35S) demonstrated that Cys³³⁹ and Cys³⁷⁷ of MPK38 and Cys³² and Cys³⁵ of Trx are required for MPK38–Trx complex formation. MPK38 directly interacted with and phosphorylated Trx at Thr⁷⁶. Expression of wild‐type Trx, but not the Trx mutants C32S/C35S and T76A, inhibited MPK38‐induced ASK1, TGF‐β, and p53 function by destabilizing MPK38. The E3 ubiquitin–protein ligase Mdm2 played a critical role in the regulation of MPK38 stability by Trx. Treatment of cells with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, a specific inhibitor of Trx reductase, decreased MPK38–Trx complex formation and subsequently increased MPK38 stability and activity, indicating that Trx negatively regulates MPK38 activity in vivo. Finally, we used ASK1-, Smad3-, and p53-null mouse embryonic fibroblasts to demonstrate that ASK1, Smad3, and p53 play important roles in the activity and function of MPK38, suggesting a functional link between MPK38 and ASK1, TGF-β, and p53 signaling pathways. These results indicate that Trx functions as a physiological inhibitor of MPK38, which plays an important role in inducing ASK1-, TGF‐β-, and p53-mediated activity.     

The S-locus receptor kinase gene in a self-incompatible Brassica napus line encodes a functional serine/threonine kinase.

An S-receptor kinase (SRK) cDNA, SRK-910, from the active S-locus in a self-incompatible Brassica napus W1 line has been isolated and characterized. The SRK-910 gene is predominantly expressed in pistils and segregates with the W1 self-incompatibility phenotype in an F2 population derived from a cross between the self-incompatible W1 line and a self-compatible Westar line. Analysis of the predicted amino acid sequence demonstrated that the extracellular receptor domain is highly homologous to S-locus glycoproteins, whereas the cytoplasmic kinase domain contains conserved amino acids present in serine/threonine kinases. An SRK-910 kinase protein fusion was produced in Escherichia coli and found to contain kinase activity. Phosphoamino acid analysis confirmed that only serine and threonine residues were phosphorylated. Thus, the SRK-910 gene encodes a functional serine/threonine receptor kinase.     

A crucial role for the phosphorylation of STRAP at Ser188 by MPK38 in STRAP-dependent cell death through ASK1, TGF-β, p53, and PI3K/PDK1 signaling pathways

Serine-threonine kinase receptor-associated protein (STRAP) is a TGF-β receptor-interacting protein that participates in the regulation of cell proliferation and cell death in response to various stresses. Here, we demonstrate that STRAP phosphorylation plays an important role in determining the pro- or anti-apoptotic function of STRAP. Murine protein serine/threonine kinase 38 (MPK38) phosphorylates STRAP at Ser¹⁸⁸ via direct interaction. Complex formation between STRAP and MPK38 is mediated by Cys¹⁵² and Cys²⁷⁰ of STRAP and Cys³³⁹ and Cys³⁷⁷ of MPK38, suggesting the redox dependency of this interaction. MPK38-mediated STRAP Ser¹⁸⁸ phosphorylation contributes to the pro-apoptotic function of STRAP by modulating key steps in STRAP-dependent ASK1, TGF-β, p53, and PI3K/PDK1 signaling pathways. Moreover, knockdown of endogenous MPK38 using an inducible MPK38 shRNA system and in vivo activation of MPK38 by treatment of HEK293 and STRAP-null MEF cells with 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB), a specific inhibitor of Trx reductase, provide evidence that STRAP Ser¹⁸⁸ phosphorylation plays a key role in STRAP-dependent cell death. Adenoviral delivery of MPK38 in mice also demonstrates that STRAP Ser¹⁸⁸ phosphorylation in the liver is tightly associated with cell death and proliferation through ASK1, TGF-β, p53, and PI3K/PDK1 pathways, resulting in apoptotic cell death.     

The Arabidopsis protein kinase Pto-interacting 1-4 is a common target of the oxidative signal-inducible 1 and mitogen-activated protein kinases

In Arabidopsis thaliana, the serine/threonine protein kinase oxidative signal-inducible 1 (OXI1), mediates oxidative stress signalling. Its activity is required for full activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), MPK3 and MPK6, in response to oxidative stress. In addition, the serine/threonine protein kinase Pto-interacting 1-2 (PTI1-2) has been positioned downstream from OXI1, but whether PTI1-2 signals through MAPK cascades is unclear. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen we show that OXI1 also interacts with PTI1-4. OXI1 and PTI1-4 are stress-responsive genes and are expressed in the same tissues. Therefore, studies were undertaken to determine whether PTI1-4 is positioned in the OXI1/MAPK signalling pathway. The interaction between OXI1 and PTI1-4 was confirmed by using in vivo co-immunoprecipitation experiments. OXI1 and PTI1-4 were substrates of MPK3 and MPK6 in vitro. Although no direct interaction was detected between OXI1 and MPK3 or MPK6, in vitro binding studies showed interactions between MPK3 or MPK6 with PTI1-4. In addition, PTI1-4 and MPK6 were found in vivo in the same protein complex. These results demonstrate that PTI1-4 signals via OXI1 and MPK6 signalling cascades.     

Cloning,expression and characterization of a gene encoding mitogen activated protein kinase 2 (MPK2) from Tetrahymena thermophila

Environmental effects and mitogens determine cell phenotype in eukaryotes mainly through MAPK pathways. However, MAPK signaling pathways in T. thermophila have not been studied comprehensively. This study aims to express recombinant MPK2, a MAPK from T. thermophila, in E. coli to characterize its kinase activity. MPK2 was cloned by RT-PCR using degenerate oligonucleotide primers and RACE method. The full-length cDNA of the MPK2 gene is 1705 bp that includes 1281 bp ORF coding for a putative protein of 426 amino acids having a mass of 50.2 kDa. The putative MPK2 protein contains all eleven conserved subdomains that are characteristics of serine/threonine protein kinases, and a TDY motif, which is a putative dual phosphorylation site common in Protista. MPK2 displays highest 48% overall identity to human ERK5 (MAPK7). The expression vector pGEX4T-1-MPK2 was constructed by inserting the coding region of MPK2 cDNA into pGEX4T-1 after introducing the nine point mutations, and then transformed into E. coli BL21(DE3). Autophosphorylation of 76 kDa GST-MPK2 at tyrosine residues was confirmed not only by Western blot using anti-phosphotyrosine monoclonal antibody but also by in vitro kinase assay. GST-MPK2 was also able to phosphorylate the artificial substrate myelin basic protein. This study concludes that the free-living unicellular protist T. thermophila MPK2 has commonly conserved MAPK enzyme features, possibly involved in the regulation of cell survival responding to abiotic or biotic stressors, and the production and movement of haploid gametic nuclei between pairs during conjugation.     

Multiple cDNAs encoding the esk kinase predict transmembrane and intracellular enzyme isoforms.

A novel protein kinase, the Esk kinase, has been isolated from an embryonal carcinoma (EC) cell line by using an expression cloning strategy. Sequence analysis of two independent cDNA clones (2.97 and 2.85 kb) suggested the presence of two Esk isoforms in EC cells. The esk-1 cDNA sequence predicted an 857-amino-acid protein kinase with a putative membrane-spanning domain, while the esk-2 cDNA predicted an 831-amino-acid kinase which lacked this domain. In adult mouse cells, esk mRNA levels were highest in tissues possessing a high proliferation rate or a sizeable stem cell compartment, suggesting that the Esk kinase may play some role in the control of cell proliferation or differentiation. As anticipated from the screening procedure, bacterial expression of the Esk kinase reacted with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies on immunoblots. Furthermore, in in vitro kinase assays, the Esk kinase was shown to phosphorylate both itself and the exogenous substrate myelin basic protein on serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues, confirming that the Esk kinase is a novel member of the serine/threonine/tyrosine family of protein kinases.     

MMK2, a novel alfalfa MAP kinase, specifically complements the yeast MPK1 function

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are serine/threonine protein kinases that are activated in response to a variety of stimuli. Here we report the isolation of an alfalfa cDNA encoding a functional MAP kinase, termedMMK2. The predicted amino acid sequence ofMMK2 shares 65% identity with a previously identified alfalfa MAP kinase, termedMMK1. Both alfalfa cDNA clones encode functional kinases when expressed in bacteria, undergoing autophosphorylation and activation to phosphorylate myelin basic protein in vitro. However, only MMK2 was able to phosphorylate a 39 kDa protein from the detergent-resistant cytoskeleton of carrot cells. The distinctiveness ofMMK2 was further shown by complementation analysis of three different MAP kinase-dependent yeast pathways; this revealed a highly specific replacement of the yeastMPK1 (SLT2) kinase byMMK2, which was found to be dependent on activation by the upstream regulators of the pathway. These results establish the existence of MAP kinases with different characteristics in higher plants, suggesting the possibility that they could mediate different cellular responses.     

The crystal structure of MPK38 in complex with OTSSP167, an orally administrative MELK selective inhibitor

Murine protein serine/threonine kinase 38 (MPK38), also known as maternal embryonic leucine zipper kinase (MELK), has been associated with various human cancers and plays an important role in the formation of cancer stem cells. OTSSP167, a MELK selective inhibitor, exhibits a strong in vitro activity, conferring an IC₅₀ of 0.41 nM and in vivo effect on various human cancer xenograft models. Here, we report the crystal structure of MPK38 (T167E), an active mutant, in complex with OTSSP167 and describe its detailed protein-inhibitor interactions. Comparison with the previous determined structure of MELK bound to the nanomolar inhibitors shows that OTSSP167 effectively fits into the active site, thus offering an opportunity for structure-based development and optimization of MELK inhibitors.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel human STE20-like kinase, hSLK

We have cloned a human counterpart to a guinea pig STE20-like kinase cDNA, designated human SLK (hSLK), from a human lung carcinomatous cell line A549 cDNA library. hSLK cDNA encodes a novel 1204 amino acid serine/threonine kinase for which the kinase domain located at the N-terminus shares considerable homology to that of the STE20-like kinase family. The C-terminal domain of hSLK includes both the coiled-coil structure and four Pro/Glu/Ser/Thr-rich (PEST) sequences, but not the GTPase-binding domain (GBD) that is characteristic of the p21-activated kinase (PAK) family, polyproline consensus binding sites, or the Leu-rich domain seen in the group I germinal center kinases (GCKs). Northern blot analysis indicated that hSLK was ubiquitously expressed. hSLK overexpressed in COS-7 cells phosphorylates itself as well as myelin basic protein used as a substrate. On the other hand, hSLK cannot activate any of the three well-characterized mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPK (ERK, JNK/SAPK and p38) pathways. Moreover, hSLK kinase activity is not upregulated by constitutive active forms of GTPases (RasV12, RacV12 and Cdc42V12). These structural and functional properties indicate that hSLK should be considered to be a new member of group II GCKs.     

Expression cloning of the TGF-beta type II receptor, a functional transmembrane serine/threonine kinase.

A cDNA encoding the TGF-beta type II receptor protein has been isolated by an expression cloning strategy. The cloned cDNA, when transfected into COS cells, leads to overexpression of an approximately 80 kd protein that specifically binds radioiodinated TGF-beta 1. Excess TGF-beta 1 competes for binding of radioiodinated TGF-beta 1 in a dose-dependent manner and is more effective than TGF-beta 2. The predicted receptor structure includes a cysteine-rich extracellular domain, a single hydrophobic transmembrane domain, and a predicted cytoplasmic serine/threonine kinase domain. A chimeric protein containing the intracellular domain of the type II receptor and expressed in E. coli can phosphorylate itself on serine and threonine residues in vitro, indicating that the cytoplasmic domain of the type II receptor is a functional kinase. This result implicates serine/threonine phosphorylation as an important mechanism of TGF-beta receptor-mediated signaling.     

The TMK1 gene from Arabidopsis codes for a protein with structural and biochemical characteristics of a receptor protein kinase.

Genomic and cDNA clones that code for a protein with structural and biochemical properties similar to the receptor protein kinases from animals were obtained from Arabidopsis. Structural features of the predicted polypeptide include an amino-terminal membrane targeting signal sequence, a region containing blocks of leucine-rich repeat elements, a single putative membrane spanning domain, and a characteristic serine/threonine-specific protein kinase domain. The gene coding for this receptor-like transmembrane kinase was designated TMK1. Portions of the TMK1 gene were expressed in Escherichia coli, and antibodies were raised against the recombinant polypeptides. These antibodies immunodecorated a 120-kD polypeptide present in crude extracts and membrane preparations. The immunodetectable band was present in extracts from leaf, stem, root, and floral tissues. The kinase domain of TMK1 was expressed as a fusion protein in E. coli, and the purified fusion protein was found capable of autophosphorylation on serine and threonine residues. The possible role of the TMK1 gene product in transmembrane signaling is discussed.     

Recombinant human pim-1 protein exhibits serine/threonine kinase activity.

The protein predicted by the sequence of the human pim-1 proto-oncogene shares extensive homology with known serine/threonine protein kinases, and yet the human Pim-1 enzyme has previously been reported to exhibit protein tyrosine kinase activity both in vitro and in vivo. Recently a new class of protein kinases has been identified which exhibits both protein-serine/threonine and protein-tyrosine kinase activities. We therefore investigated the possibility that the human Pim-1 kinase likewise possesses such bifunctional enzymatic phosphorylating activities. A full-length human pim-1 cDNA was subcloned into the bacterial vector pGEX-2T and the Pim-1 protein expressed as a fusion product with bacterial glutathione S-transferase (GST). The hybrid GST-Pim-1 fusion protein was affinity purified on a glutathione-Sepharose column prior to treatment with thrombin for cleavage of the Pim-1 protein from the transferase. Pim-1 was purified and the identity of recombinant protein confirmed by amino-terminal sequence analysis. Pim-1 was tested for kinase activity with a variety of proteins and peptides known to be substrates for either mammalian protein-serine/threonine or protein-tyrosine kinases and was found to phosphorylate serine/threonine residues exclusively in vitro. Both the Pim-1-GST fusion protein and the isolated Pim-1 protein exhibited only serine/threonine phosphorylating activity under all in vitro conditions tested. Pim-1 phosphorylated purified mammalian histone H1 with a Km of approximately 51 microM. Additionally, Pim-1 exhibited low levels of serine/threonine autophosphorylating activity. These observations place the human Pim-1 in a small select group of cytoplasmic transforming oncogenic kinases, including the protein kinase C, the Raf/Mil, and the Mos subfamilies, exhibiting serine/threonine phosphorylating activity.