Effects of Menstrual Cycle and Room Temperature on Color Preference

This study investigated the effects of menstrual cycle on color preference in nine normally menstruating female subjects. They were instructed to choose their preferred color out of 45 Munsell hues every 5 min at ambient temperatures (T _a) of 28°C (630-800 h), from 28°C to 23°C (800-900 h) and at 23°C (900-930 h). Warmer color hues were preferred during the luteal phase than the follicular phase at 28°C, while there did not exist any significant differences at other T _as. The findings that a preference for warmer colors occurred in the luteal phase at 28°C is discussed in terms of the load error between actual core temperature and its setpoint.     

The Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Dreaming

In this study we have investigated the effect that the menstrual cycle has on dreams, sleep quality and mood. A total of 16 women, university students, with a regular menstrual cycle of 28 days, not on any form of hormonal treatment were tested over five weeks. Methods of diary of dreams, daily self-evaluation of mood and weekly self-assessment of quality of sleep were adopted. Mood scores varied significantly during the menstrual cycle (p < 0.05) with improvement of mood around the time of ovulation and worsening during the pre-menstrual phase of the cycle. Sleep quality did not vary significantly during the menstrual cycle. During the pre-ovulatory phase of the cycle dreams had the highest levels of incongruity (p < 0.05), number of positive emotions (p < 0.0005), number of male-non-self-characters (p < 0.005) and erotic content (p < 0.001). While during the pre-menstrual phase dreams were longer (p < 0.05) and with a larger number of female characters (p < 0.005) and of negative emotions (p < 0.0005). These results suggest that the hormonal variations during the menstrual cycle may have an effect on dreaming. Both the preovulatory oestrogen peak and the presence of progesterone during the luteal phase may enhance memory processes involved in the dream production.     

Preferred Room Temperature Self-selected by Women Under the Influence of the Menstrual Cycle and Time of Day

Female subjects preferred higher room temperatures during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle than during the follicular phase, and also in the morning as compared with the evening. The results could be interpreted in terms of the establishment of a higher setpoint in core temperature during the luteal phase and in the morning.     

Preferred Room Temperature Self-selected by Women Under the Influence of the Menstrual Cycle and Time of Day

Female subjects preferred higher room temperatures during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle than during the follicular phase, and also in the morning as compared with the evening. The results could be interpreted in terms of the establishment of a higher setpoint in core temperature during the luteal phase and in the morning.     

Menstrual Cycle Effects on Attitudes toward Romantic Kissing

Hormonal changes associated with the human menstrual cycle have been previously found to affect female mate preference, whereby women in the late follicular phase of their cycle (i.e., at higher risk of conception) prefer males displaying putative signals of underlying genetic fitness. Past research also suggests that romantic kissing is utilized in human mating contexts to assess potential mating partners. The current study examined whether women in their late follicular cycle phase place greater value on kissing at times when it might help serve mate assessment functions. Using an international online questionnaire, results showed that women in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle felt that kissing was more important at initial stages of a relationship than women in the luteal phase of their cycle. Furthermore, it was found that estimated progesterone levels were a significant negative predictor for these ratings.     

Effect of Sex, Menstrual Cycle Phase, and Oral Contraceptive Use on Circadian Temperature Rhythms

The circadian rhythm of rectal temperature was continuously recorded over several consecutive days in young men and women on regular nocturnal sleep schedules. There were 50 men, 21 women with natural menstrual cycles [i.e., not taking oral contraceptives (OCs) (10 in the follicular phase and 11 in the luteal phase)], and 14 women using OCs (6 in the pseudofollicular phase and 8 in the pseudoluteal phase). Circadian phase and amplitude were estimated using a curve-fitting procedure, and temperature levels were determined from the raw data. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the data from the four groups of women, with factors menstrual cycle phase (follicular, luteal) and OC use (yes, no), showed that temperature during sleep was lower during the follicular phase than during the luteal phase. Since waking temperatures were similar in the two phases, the circadian amplitude was also larger during the follicular phase. The lower follicular phase sleep temperature also resulted in a lower 24-h temperature during the follicular phase. The two-way ANOVA showed that temperature during sleep and 24-h temperature were lower in naturally cycling women than in women taking OCs. A one-way ANOVA on the temperature rhythm parameters from the five groups of subjects showed that the temperature rhythms of the men and of the naturally cycling women in the follicular phase were not significantly different. Both of these groups had lower temperatures during sleep, lower 24-h temperatures, and larger circadian amplitudes than the other groups. There were no significant differences in circadian phase among the five groups studied. In conclusion, menstrual cycle phase, OC use, and sex affect the amplitude and level, but not the phase, of the overt circadian temperature rhythm.     

Effect of Sex,Menstrual Cycle Phase,and Oral Contraceptive Use on Circadian Temperature Rhythms

The circadian rhythm of rectal temperature was continuously recorded over several consecutive days in young men and women on regular nocturnal sleep schedules. There were 50 men, 21 women with natural menstrual cycles [i.e., not taking oral contraceptives (OCs) (10 in the follicular phase and 11 in the luteal phase)], and 14 women using OCs (6 in the pseudofollicular phase and 8 in the pseudoluteal phase). Circadian phase and amplitude were estimated using a curve-fitting procedure, and temperature levels were determined from the raw data. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the data from the four groups of women, with factors menstrual cycle phase (follicular, luteal) and OC use (yes, no), showed that temperature during sleep was lower during the follicular phase than during the luteal phase. Since waking temperatures were similar in the two phases, the circadian amplitude was also larger during the follicular phase. The lower follicular phase sleep temperature also resulted in a lower 24-h temperature during the follicular phase. The two-way ANOVA showed that temperature during sleep and 24-h temperature were lower in naturally cycling women than in women taking OCs. A one-way ANOVA on the temperature rhythm parameters from the five groups of subjects showed that the temperature rhythms of the men and of the naturally cycling women in the follicular phase were not significantly different. Both of these groups had lower temperatures during sleep, lower 24-h temperatures, and larger circadian amplitudes than the other groups. There were no significant differences in circadian phase among the five groups studied. In conclusion, menstrual cycle phase, OC use, and sex affect the amplitude and level, but not the phase, of the overt circadian temperature rhythm.     

The Isolated and Combined Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase and Time-of-Day on Muscle Strength of Eumenorrheic Females

Diurnal variation in muscle performance has been well documented in the past few years, but almost exclusively in the male population. The possible effects of the menstrual cycle on human circadian rhythms have remained equivocal, particularly in the context of muscle strength. The purpose of the study was to analyze the isolated and combined effects of circamensal variation and diurnal changes on muscle strength. Eight eumenorrheic females (age 30 ± 5 yrs, height 1.63 ± 0.06 m and body mass 66.26 ± 4.6 kg: mean ± SD) participated in this investigation. Isokinetic peak torque of knee extensors and flexors of the dominant leg were measured at 1.05, 3.14 rad.s^?1 (through 90° ROM) at two times-of-day (06:00, 18:00 h) and five time points of the menstrual cycle (menses, mid-follicular, ovulation, mid-luteal, late luteal). In addition, maximum voluntary isometric contraction of knee extensors and flexors and electrically stimulated isometric contraction of the knee extensors were measured at 60° of knee flexion. Rectal temperature was measured during 30 min before the tests. There was a significant time-of-day effect on peak torque values for isometric contraction of knee extensors under electrical stimulation (P < 0.05). At 18:00 h, muscle force was 2.6% greater than at 06:00 h. The time-of-day effect was not significant when the tests were performed voluntarily without stimulation: effect size calculations indicated small differences between morning and evening for maximal voluntary isometric contraction and peak torque (at 1.05 rad.s^?1) for the knee extensors. A circamensal variation was observed for peak torque of knee flexors at 1.05 rad.s^?1, extensors at 3.14 rad.s^?1, and also isometric contraction of knee flexors, values being greatest at the ovulation phase. Interaction effects between time-of-day and menstrual cycle phase were not observed in any of the indices of muscle strength studied. The phase of the menstrual cycle seemed to have a greater effect than did the time-of-day on female muscle strength in this group of subjects. The present results suggest that peripheral rather than central mechanisms (e.g., motivation) are implicated in the diurnal variation of maximal isometric strength of women.     

无尾两栖类在不同生活史阶段的栖息环境

无尾目的生活史分为卵、蝌蚪和成体3个不同的阶段,它们分别生活在迥异的环境中,形成了各自阶段的生态适应。本文综述了无尾目3个阶段的栖息环境,以繁殖模式描述卵的栖息环境,以发育序列和生态表型描述蝌蚪的栖息环境,以生活类型描述成体的栖息环境。无尾目的环境选择策略集中表现了进化的关键趋向:由水向陆的运动。利用生活史对水陆两种环境的适应优势,无尾目成功地分布到除南极洲之外的所有大陆。     

Effects of Gender and Phase of the Menstrual Cycle on the Kinetics of Ranitidine in Healthy Volunteers

The present study was undertaken to determine if differences exist in the pharmacokinetic parameters of oral ranitidine caused by gender and stage of the menstrual cycle. The study was performed in two steps, in the first a pharmacokinetic study was performed on 10 men (average age 35.5 yrs) and 10 women (average age 34.7 yrs) during the follicular phase, and in the second the pharmacokinetic study was performed only on the same women in their luteal phase. Subjects received a tablet dose of 300 mg ranitidine, and blood samples were drawn at several times after its ingestion. Plasma ranitidine concentration was determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Comparison of the pharmacokinetic parameters of women and men revealed statistically significant differences both in distribution volume (Vd) with values of 2.0 and 6.3 l/kg, Area Under Curve (AUC) with values of 7312.15 and 11471.94 ng/ml/h, and clearance (CLt) with values of 0.65 and 0.59 l/kg/h, respectively. Several pharmacokinetic parameters in women were different in the follicular compared to the luteal phase; for example, Vd was 2.0 and 5.6 l/kg, AUC was 7312.15 and 5195.83 ng/ml/h, and CLt was 0.65 and 0.97 l/kg/h, in the respective phases. Moreover, the maximum concentration (Cmax) was 1086 ng/ml in the follicular vs. 864 ng/ml in the luteal phase. The first study detected differences between men and women in several pharmacokinetic parameters, mainly those indicative of drug availability, for example, Vd, AUC, and CLt. Comparison of data obtained in the follicular phase with those obtained in the luteal phase revealed differences in most pharmacokinetic parameters, which is seemingly indicative of the characteristic physiological changes associated with the luteal phase that largely affect the kinetics and availability of drugs such as ranitidine. Although it has been postulated that hormonal fluctuation within the menstrual cycle phase is the primary cause of documented gender differences in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs, further study of related factors is required to fully understand how gender and menstrual cycle rhythms affect the pharmacokinetic process in their entirety.     

The Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Economic Choice and Rationality

It is well known that hormones affect both brain and behavior, but less is known about the extent to which hormones affect economic decision-making. Numerous studies demonstrate gender differences in attitudes to risk and loss in financial decision-making, often finding that women are more loss and risk averse than men. It is unclear what drives these effects and whether cyclically varying hormonal differences between men and women contribute to differences in economic preferences. We focus here on how economic rationality and preferences change as a function of menstrual cycle phase in women. We tested adherence to the Generalized Axiom of Revealed Preference (GARP), the standard test of economic rationality. If choices satisfy GARP then there exists a well-behaved utility function that the subject’s decisions maximize. We also examined whether risk attitudes and loss aversion change as a function of cycle phase. We found that, despite large fluctuations in hormone levels, women are as technically rational in their choice behavior as their male counterparts at all phases of the menstrual cycle. However, women are more likely to choose risky options that can lead to potential losses while ovulating; during ovulation women are less loss averse than men and therefore more economically rational than men in this regard. These findings may have market-level implications: ovulating women more effectively maximize expected value than do other groups.     

A Mathematical Model of the Human Menstrual Cycle

A mathematical model for the hormonal interactions of the human menstrual cycle is presented. The feedback effects of estrogen on the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are considered, including a mechanism describing the midcycle LH peak. Computer simulation with this model yields results which are periodic and in good agreement with physiological data.     

The Menstrual Cycle and Human Performance: An Overview

Physiological events during the normal menstrual cycle are determined by feedback loops within the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Hormonal changes within the menstrual cycle have potential impact on human performance. Relevant stages to consider are pre-menses and menses, the follicular and luteal phases separated by an abrupt elevation in lutenizing hormone and characterised by a sharp rise in body temperature coinciding with ovulation. Strenuous athletic training may affect the normal menstrual cycle. Such disruptions include delayed menarche in ballet dancers and gymnasts, shortened luteal phase and secondary amenorrhea associated with high training loads and competitive stress. Amenorrhea is also noted in flight attendants, linked with an inhibiting effect of disrupted circadian rhythm on lutenizing hormone. The so-called 'athlete triad' considers secondary amenorrhea, abnormal eating behaviour and osteoporosis (attributed to chronic hypoestrogenia). The normal cycle may also be disrupted when circadian rhythms are disturbed, for example in rapid time-zone transitions. Fluctuations in the steroid hormones have been associated with changes in muscle strength. There is evidence also of elevations in heart rate: changes may be partly specific to time of day. Effects on muscle strength may be determined at selected stages of the menstrual cycle, using whole-body performance, local muscle groups or isolated individual muscles. Whilst oestrogen has been implicated in the ergogenic effect of steroid hormones, there is accumulating evidence that a role for progesterone cannot be discounted. The isolation of the ovarian hormones separately is feasible with studies of IVF patients or groups on hormone replacement therapy.