磷脂酸和溶血磷脂酸的生理功能

磷脂酸(phosphatidic acid, PA)和溶血磷脂酸(lysophosphatidic acid,LPA)是细胞内和细胞外信号转导的重要磷脂信号分子.它们主要通过磷脂酶D和磷脂酶C两条途径产生,并且PA在磷脂酶A2的催化下可水解生成LPA.越来越多证据表明,PA和LPA在细胞诸多生理功能中起重要作用.本文主要介绍PA和LPA的生理功能及作用机制的研究进展.     

溶血磷脂酸--一种具有多种生物学功能的磷脂信号分子

溶血磷脂酸(Lysophosphatidic acid,LPA)是迄今发现的一种最小、结构最简单的磷脂,它是真核细胞磷脂生物合成早期阶段的关键性前体,甘油磷脂代谢的中间产物。60年代初,Vogt等人在实验中观察到,LPA能够引起免离体肠平滑肌收缩。这一现象使人们认识到LPA不仅仅是生物膜的组成成分可能还具有某些生物学功能。随后越来越多的研究表明:LPA作为一种细胞间的磷脂信使,可以激活G蛋白偶联受体,引起生长激素样作用,从而产生广泛的生物学效应。LPA对细胞的生长、增殖、分化及细胞内信息传递产生多种影响,在维持机体正常的生理功能,参与各种病理过程的发     

自分泌运动因子受体在大鼠胃肠的定位

目的 研究自分泌运动因子受体在大鼠胃肠的表达及分布特点。方法应用免疫组织化学方法染色。结果在大鼠胃壁内有自分泌运动因子受体的表达,免疫反应产物主要定位于胃底腺,阳性细胞胞体大,胞核呈阴性,小肠和大肠组织均呈阴性反应。结论正常大鼠胃底腺有自分泌运动因子受体的表达,提示可能参与胃腺的多种生理活动。     

自分泌游动因子与其受体系统的肿瘤生物学意义

自分泌游动因子(autocrine motility factor,AMF)由肿瘤细胞表达并自分泌产生,与自分泌游动因子受体(autocrine motility factor receptor,AMFR,gp78)结合,可刺激肿瘤细胞移动.AMF是一个家族,与磷酸己糖异构酶(phosphohexose isomerase,PHI)、神经白细胞素(neuroleukin,NLK)和成熟因子(maturation factor,MF)是同一前体基因的表达产物,它们与AMFR结合后能介导多方面的生物学功能.本文重点介绍有关AMF和AMFR蛋白分子的结构特点及其肿瘤生物学意义的研究进展.     

Autotaxin表达调控机制及其生物学功能

Autotaxin(ATX)是催化溶血磷脂酸(lysophosphatidic acid, LPA)生成的关键酶, LPA可以与细胞膜上至少6种G蛋白偶联受体(称为LPA受体1-6)结合,激活各种信号转导通路,在多种生理和病理过程中发挥重要作用. ATX的表达在转录、转录后及分泌过程中受到多水平的调控,近期的研究还发现了ATX表达的表观遗传调控机制.肿瘤微环境中ATX和LPA可以促进肿瘤细胞的增殖和迁移,因此ATX-LPA通路被认为是一种潜在的癌症治疗靶点.目前,人们已经研发了多种ATX抑制剂,并发现具有临床应用潜力.本文重点关注ATX的表达调控机制和生物学功能,阐释ATX-LPA信号轴调控的生理和病理意义.     

溶血磷脂酸对家猫心肌细胞蛋白激酶C分布的影响

本文观察了溶血磷脂酸（ＬＰＡ）对心肌细胞内蛋白激酶Ｃ（ＰＫＣ）分布的影响。在离体家猫心脏灌流ＬＰＡ（１０－８ｍｏｌ／Ｌ）后差速离心分别制备心肌细胞胞浆、核及肌膜,测定各部分ＰＫＣ活性。结果显示：与对照组比较,ＬＰＡ组心肌总ＰＫＣ活性增加９．８％（Ｐ＜０．０５）,但胞浆ＰＫＣ活性降低１０．３％（Ｐ＜０．０５）,膜与核的活性分别增加３８．８％和７７．６％（Ｐ＜０．０１）。结论：ＬＰＡ刺激心肌细胞ＰＫＣ活性增强,并可能使ＰＫＣ从胞浆向胞核和肌膜部分转移     

脂肪细胞的内分泌和自分泌/旁分泌功能

脂肪细胞是高度特化的细胞,除了可通过内分泌、旁分泌和自分泌方式来调节脂肪组织本身的能量储存和释放外,还可以通过循环系统调控其他组织器官的代谢活动。     

溶血磷脂酸对离体培养的大鼠胚胎神经干细胞向神经胶质细胞分化的影响

本研究用免疫细胞化学荧光双标技术观察了溶血磷脂酸（lysophosphatidic acid,LPA）对大鼠胚胎神经干细胞（neural stem cells,NSCs）分化为少突胶质细胞（galactocerebroside—positive,Gal-C阳性）和星形胶质细胞（grim fibrillary acidic protein-positive,GFAP阳性）的影响,并且用RT-PCR技术对NSCs可能表达的LPA受体进行分析。结果显示：（1）加入不同浓度（0．010．0μmol／L）LPA,第7天进行检测时,少突胶质细胞数量呈明显的剂量依赖性增加,峰值出现在1．0μmol／LLPA组,少突胶质细胞所占百分比从对照组的8．5％增加到32．6％;（2）星形胶质细胞的分化几乎不受LPA的影响,第7天时各LPA处理组星形胶质细胞百分比与对照组相比均无显著性差异;（3）RT-PCR结果显示,大鼠胚胎NSCs的LPA1和LPA3受体表达明显,而LPA3受体表达很弱。以上结果表明,较低浓度的LPA可能作为细胞外信号,通过LPA1和LPA3受体促进大鼠胚胎NSCs向少突胶质细胞分化和生成,但对星形胶质细胞的分化过程无明显影响。     

干细胞的旁分泌和自分泌功能——基础与临床研究的新视角

近年发现干细胞具有很强的旁/自分泌功能,本文综述干细胞所分泌的生长因子、细胞因子、调节肽、细胞信号分子等生物活性因子,以及缺血、缺氧、生长因子、性别和其它激素对干细胞分泌功能的调节;并分析干细胞分泌功能在血管生成、心脏、肝脏、肾脏和神经系统保护中的作用,认为干细胞可通过其分泌功能影响靶器官结构、功能状态及其病理状态下的修复,是干细胞治疗改善靶器官功能、抗凋亡、抗炎等作用的机制之一.     

溶血磷脂酸对培养小鼠大脑皮层神经元的双重作用:抗凋亡和促凋亡

应用DNA电泳分析、HO33342和TUNEL染色法、以及部分地使用透射电镜技术,检测了不同浓度的溶血磷脂酸(1ysophosphatidic acid,LPA)对离体培养的小鼠大脑皮层神经元存活情况的影响.结果显示,低浓度的LPA(0.1～30μmol/L)对去血清培养所致的皮层神经元凋亡有浓度依赖性的保护作用,而较高浓度的LPA(＞50 μmol/L)不仅不表现这种保护作用,而且可引致培养在含血清的完全培养基中的皮层神经元出现凋亡.以上结果表明,适当浓度的LPA对凋亡的皮层神经元起着保护因子或抗凋亡因子的作用,而较高浓度的LPA则起着促凋亡因子的作用.     

Regulation and biological activities of the autotaxin-LPA axis

Autotaxin (ATX), or nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 2 (NPP2), is an exo-enzyme originally identified as a tumor cell autocrine motility factor. ATX is unique among the NPPs in that it primarily functions as a lysophospholipase D, converting lysophosphatidylcholine into the lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA acts on specific G protein-coupled receptors to elicit a wide range of cellular responses, ranging from cell proliferation and migration to neurite remodeling and cytokine production. While LPA signaling has been studied extensively over the last decade, we are only now beginning to explore the properties and biological importance of ATX as the major LPA-producing phospholipase. In this review, we highlight recent advances in our understanding of the ATX-LPA axis, giving first an update on LPA action and then focusing on ATX, in particular its regulation, its link to cancer and its vital role in vascular development.     

Expression of autotaxin and lysophosphatidic acid receptors 1 and 3 in the developing rat lung and in response to hyperoxia

Abstract

We sought to evaluate lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling improvement in lung development by assessing the expression of autotaxin and LPA receptor 1 and 3 (LPAR1 and LPAR3) in the neonatal rat lung during normal perinatal development and in response to hyperoxia. In the developmental study, rats were sacrificed on days 17, 19, and 21 of gestation; on postnatal days 1, 4, and 7; and at adulthood (postnatal 9 weeks). In the hyperoxia study, 42 postnatal 4-day-old rat pups were divided into seven groups and exposed to either 85% O₂ for 24, 72, or 120 h or room air for 0, 24, 72, or 120 h. The rats were then euthanized after 0, 24, 72, and 120 h of exposure. Immunofluorescence demonstrated that autotaxin, LPAR1, and LPAR3 proteins were broadly colocalized in airway epithelial cells, but mainly distributed in vascular endothelial and mesenchymal cells during the first postnatal week. The expression of autotaxin, LPAR1, and LPAR3 were increased during late gestation and then decreased after birth. Autotaxin expression and enzymatic activity were significantly increased at 72 and 120 h after exposure to hyperoxia. LPAR1 and LPAR3 expression was also increased after 120 h of hyperoxic exposure. These findings suggest that LPA-associated molecules were upregulated at birth and induced by hyperoxia in the developing rat lung. Therefore, the LPA pathway may be involved in normal lung development, including vascular development, as well as wound-healing processes of injured neonatal lung tissue, which is at risk of neonatal hyperoxic acute lung injury.     

The phospholipase A1 activity of lysophospholipase A-I links platelet activation to LPA production during blood coagulation

Platelet activation initiates an upsurge in polyunsaturated (18:2 and 20:4) lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) production. The biochemical pathway(s) responsible for LPA production during blood clotting are not yet fully understood. Here we describe the purification of a phospholipase A(1) (PLA(1)) from thrombin-activated human platelets using sequential chromatographic steps followed by fluorophosphonate (FP)-biotin affinity labeling and proteomics characterization that identified acyl-protein thioesterase 1 (APT1), also known as lysophospholipase A-I (LYPLA-I; accession code O75608) as a novel PLA(1). Addition of this recombinant PLA(1) significantly increased the production of sn-2-esterified polyunsaturated LPCs and the corresponding LPAs in plasma. We examined the regioisomeric preference of lysophospholipase D/autotaxin (ATX), which is the subsequent step in LPA production. To prevent acyl migration, ether-linked regioisomers of oleyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (lyso-PAF) were synthesized. ATX preferred the sn-1 to the sn-2 regioisomer of lyso-PAF. We propose the following LPA production pathway in blood: 1) Activated platelets release PLA(1); 2) PLA(1) generates a pool of sn-2 lysophospholipids; 3) These newly generated sn-2 lysophospholipids undergo acyl migration to yield sn-1 lysophospholipids, which are the preferred substrates of ATX; and 4) ATX cleaves the sn-1 lysophospholipids to generate sn-1 LPA species containing predominantly 18:2 and 20:4 fatty acids.     

Identification of autotaxin as a neurite retraction-inducing factor of PC12 cells in cerebrospinal fluid and its possible sources

Abstract Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) induced neurite retraction of differentiated PC12 cells; the action was observed in 15 min (a rapid response) and the activity further increased until 6 h (a long-acting response) during exposure of CSF to the cells. The CSF action was sensitive to monoglyceride lipase and diminished by homologous desensitization with lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and by pretreatment with an LPA receptor antagonist Ki16425. Although fresh CSF contains LPA to some extent, the LPA content in the medium was increased during culture of PC12 cells with CSF. The rapid response was mimicked by exogenous LPA, and a long-acting response was duplicated by a recombinant autotaxin, lysophospholipase D (lyso-PLD). Although the lyso-PLD substrate lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) was not detected in CSF, lyso-PLD activity and an approximately 120-kDa autotaxin protein were detected in CSF. On the other hand, LPC but not lyso-PLD activity was detected in the conditioned medium of a PC12 cell culture without CSF. Among neural cells examined, leptomeningeal cells expressed the highest lyso-PLD activity and autotaxin protein. These results suggest that leptomeningeal cells may work as one of the sources for autotaxin, which may play a critical role in LPA production and thereby regulate axonal and neurite morphological change.     

Metabolic pathways and physiological and pathological significances of lysolipid phosphate mediators

Lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine 1-phosphate are structurally simple and physiologically very important lysophospholipids. Because they possess distinct structural backbones (glycerol and sphingosine, respectively), there are different metabolic pathways for their intracellular production. Recently, several key enzymes that produce or degrade these lysolipid phosphate mediators extracellularly have been characterized. This review focuses on the physiological and pathophysiological significances of the extracellular metabolic pathways involving recently characterized exo-type lysophospholipase D, ecto-type phospholipase A, and ecto-type lipid phosphate phosphatase.     

Choline-releasing glycerophosphodiesterase EDI3 links the tumor metabolome to signaling network activities

Recently, EDI3 was identified as a key factor for choline metabolism that controls tumor cell migration and is associated with metastasis in endometrial carcinomas. EDI3 cleaves glycerophosphocholine (GPC) to form choline and glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P). Choline is then further metabolized to phosphatidylcholine (PtdC), the major lipid in membranes and a key player in membrane-mediated cell signaling. The second product, G3P, is a precursor molecule for several lipids with central roles in signaling, for example lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), phosphatidic acid (PA) and diacylglycerol (DAG). LPA activates intracellular signaling pathways by binding to specific LPA receptors, including membrane-bound G protein-coupled receptors and the intracellular nuclear receptor, PPARγ. Conversely, PA and DAG mediate signaling by acting as lipid anchors that bind and activate several signaling proteins. For example, binding of GTPases and PKC to PA and DAG, respectively, increases the activation of signaling networks, mediating processes such as migration, adhesion, proliferation or anti-apoptosis—all relevant for tumor development. We present a concept by which EDI3 either directly generates signaling molecules or provides “membrane anchors” for downstream signaling factors. As a result, EDI3 links choline metabolism to signaling activities resulting in a more malignant phenotype.     

Choline-releasing glycerophosphodiesterase EDI3 links the tumor metabolome to signaling network activities

Recently, EDI3 was identified as a key factor for choline metabolism that controls tumor cell migration and is associated with metastasis in endometrial carcinomas. EDI3 cleaves glycerophosphocholine (GPC) to form choline and glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P). Choline is then further metabolized to phosphatidylcholine (PtdC), the major lipid in membranes and a key player in membrane-mediated cell signaling. The second product, G3P, is a precursor molecule for several lipids with central roles in signaling, for example lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), phosphatidic acid (PA) and diacylglycerol (DAG). LPA activates intracellular signaling pathways by binding to specific LPA receptors, including membrane-bound G protein-coupled receptors and the intracellular nuclear receptor, PPARγ. Conversely, PA and DAG mediate signaling by acting as lipid anchors that bind and activate several signaling proteins. For example, binding of GTPases and PKC to PA and DAG, respectively, increases the activation of signaling networks, mediating processes such as migration, adhesion, proliferation or anti-apoptosis—all relevant for tumor development. We present a concept by which EDI3 either directly generates signaling molecules or provides “membrane anchors” for downstream signaling factors. As a result, EDI3 links choline metabolism to signaling activities resulting in a more malignant phenotype.     

Improved method for the quantification of lysophospholipids including enol ether species by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

LC/ESI-MS/MS has been previously demonstrated to be a powerful method to detect and quantify molecular species of glycerophospholipids including lysophospholipids. In this study, we provide an improved pre-mass spectrometry lipid extraction procedure that avoids the acid-catalyzed decomposition of plasmenyl phospholipids that is problematic with previously reported methods. We show that the use of lysophospholipid internal standards with perdeuterated fatty acyl chains avoids isobar problems associated with the use of internal standards containing odd carbon number fatty acyl chains. We also show that LC prior to MS is required to avoid numerous problems associated with isobars and with MS in-source decomposition of lysophosphatidylserine. The reported method of using normal phase chromatography/ESI-MS is used to quantify lysophospholipids in serum and to quantify lysophospholipids produced in mammalian cells by human group X secreted phospholipase A₂. The latter shows that group X phospholipase A₂ added exogenously to cells generates a different set of lysophospholipids compared with enzyme produced endogenously in cells, which supports earlier studies showing that this phospholipase A₂ can act on cell membranes prior to externalization from cells.     

Biosynthesis of Castor Oil: Effect of Polyamines on the Acylation of Lysophosphatidic Acid at the sn-2 Position with Ricinoleic Acid

Polyamines with diamine structures of chain length longer than 3C were essential for the synthesis of phosphatidic acid (PA) from ricinoleoyl-CoA and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) by the castor LPA acyltransferase reaction, suggesting that polyamines modulate enzyme affinity for the acyl-CoA substrate in vivo.