心脏β2—肾上腺素受体研究进展

随着受体的研究的蓬勃发展,对在心脏活动调节中起重要作用的肾上腺素受体的了解也更加深入。近年来的许多研究表明β2－肾上腺素受体不同亚型之间的信号转导及其介质的心脏反应有着很大的差异。本文扼要介绍了心脏β2－肾上腺素受体的最新研究进展,主要包括β2－肾上腺素受体中的混杂G蛋白偶联、信号转导局域化、固有活性及其与充血性心力衰竭的关系。     

心脏β_2-肾上腺素受体研究进展

随着受体研究的蓬勃发展 ,对在心脏活动调节中起重要作用的肾上腺素受体的了解也更加深入。近年来的许多研究表明 β 肾上腺素受体不同亚型之间的信号转导及其介导的心脏反应有着很大的差异。本文扼要介绍了心脏 β2 肾上腺素受体的最新研究进展 ,主要包括 β2 肾上腺素受体的混杂G蛋白偶联、信号转导局域化、固有活性及其与充血性心力衰竭的关系。     

β-arrestin与β-肾上腺素受体

2012年度诺贝尔化学奖授予了美国科学家罗伯特.莱夫科维茨（Robert J.Lefkowitz）和布莱恩.克比尔卡（Brian K.Kobilka）,以表彰他们在G蛋白偶联受体研究中的贡献。从Robert J.Lefkowitz最初研究β-肾上腺素受体（β-adrenergic receptor,β-AR）减敏机制时发现β-arrestin1至今已有20多年,随着对β-arrestin在细胞信号转导中作用研究的逐渐深入,发现β-arrestin参与β-AR的减敏、内化和降解;近年来又发现,依赖β-arrestin的β-AR信号转导通路具有＂偏向激活＂现象,并提示这种依赖β-arrestin的＂偏向激活＂信号转导通路具有心脏保护作用。β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂的发现和临床应用被视为20世纪药物治疗学上里程碑式的进展,是药物防治心脏疾病的最伟大突破,很多心血管药物都以β-AR为靶点。但是,由于目前受体药物均是针对受体本身的调控,这样在阻断了受体介导的病理性信号通路和功能的同时,也阻断了受体介导的正常生理性信号通路和功能,造成了严重的毒副作用。所以,研发能选择性阻滞β-AR过度激活介导的病理性信号通路和功能的同时,保留受体介导的正常生理性信号通路和功能（如β-arrestin信号通路）的药物,对治疗心血管疾病有重要意义,受体功能选择性的配体药物将成为未来药物的研究方向。该文将回顾β-arrestin的发现过程,综述其与β-AR的相互作用,期望能为心脏疾病的药物治疗提供参考。     

β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及其功能

血管疾病成为威胁人类健康头号杀手,心血管受体在心血管疾病的发生、发展及预防和治疗中具有举足轻重的地位。β-肾上腺素受体作为G蛋白偶联受体家族的成员,是心血管药物最重要的靶点之一。β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂被认为是继洋地黄后药物防治心脏疾病的最伟大突破,其在心血管领域的研究和应用一直是被关注的热点。2012年度诺贝尔化学奖再次授予了β-肾上腺素受体的研究。随着研究的深入,人们发现β-肾上腺素受体接受着细胞内调控蛋白的精密调控,不同调控蛋白介导着受体不同的生理信号通路和病理性信号通路。基于这些发现,近年来提出了受体功能选择性的配体药物,这也将成为未来药物的研究方向。本文综述了β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及相关信号通路及功能。     

心脏β肾上腺素受体信号转导研究与相关药物研发

β 肾上腺素受体作为重要的 G 蛋白偶联受体家族成员,在血液循环、代谢调节、肌肉收缩和舒张中都具有重要的作用。在心脏中, 急性激活 β 肾上腺素受体能够促进心脏功能,持续性激活 β 肾上腺素受体在心脏重构的病理生理过程中具有重要作用。心脏中的 β 肾上腺 素受体包括 3 个亚型:β1 肾上腺素受体、β2 肾上腺素受体和 β3 肾上腺素受体。文章重点讨论了 β1 和 β2 肾上腺素受体二者在心脏中不同甚 至截然相反的作用。在此基础上,提出基于 β 肾上腺素受体信号转导亚型特异性的心衰治疗新方法。     

β-肾上腺素能受体在NO抑制小鼠回肠自主收缩中的作用

目的：观察一氧化氮（nitric oxide,NO）供体左旋精氨酸（L-argnine,L—Arg）对小鼠回肠自主收缩幅度的影响,探讨肛肾上腺素能受体在NO抑制小鼠回肠自主收缩中的作用。方法：应用张力换能器记录标本自主收缩的方法,以回肠肌条自主收缩幅度变化为指标,观察一氧化氮合酶（nitric oxide synthase,NOS）抑制剂L-NNA,可溶性鸟苷酸环化酶（soluble guanylyl cyclase,sGC）抑制剂ODQ（1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-aJquinoxalin-1-one）,β-肾上腺素能受体激动荆异丙肾上腺素（Isoprenaline,ISO）和拮抗剂普萘洛尔（Propranolol）对NO作用的影响。结果：①L—Arg抑制小鼠回肠自主收缩幅度,呈浓度依赖性。②L-NNA（3×10^-4mol／L）,ODQ（3×10^-4mol／L）均减弱L-Arg的抑制效应。③Propranolol（3×10^-6mol／L）明显减弱L—Arg的抑制效应。④ISCO（1×100mol／L）明显增强L—Arg的抑制效应。而Propranolol（3×10^-6mol／L）和ISCO（1×10^-7mol／L）孵育组,L—Arg的抑制作用无明显变化。结论：L-Arg经NOS催化生成NO后经cGMP途径发挥对小鼠回肠自主收缩的抑制作用,良受体途径也部分参与了NO的作用过程。     

β肾上腺素受体的结构与功能域

β肾上腺素受体具有视紫红质样结构,包括由膜两侧亲水环相互联结7个疏水性跨膜α螺旋结构,N端无信号序列而含有2个N-糖基化位点,C端富含丝氨酸和苏氨酸残基.7个跨膜结构构成配基结合位点.β受体细胞膜内侧环状序列形成两亲α螺旋结构,与G蛋白相互作用.C端及第3个内侧环的丝氨酸及苏氨酸残基构成受体磷酸化位点,参与受体功能调控.     

肾上腺素受体研究进展

按照药理学特性及分子克隆情况,肾上腺素受体可分成α１、α２与β亚型,每型又至少可分成三种亚型。肾上腺素受体的分子结构符合Ｇ蛋白耦联膜表面受体的一般特征。采用分子突变技术,已基本明确受体各部分结构的功能。决定与配基结合特性的部位在跨膜区域内,而决定与Ｇ蛋白耦联进引起信号传递的部位主要存在于第三细胞内环。各种亚型受体之间存在着广泛的交互作用,按发生的环节可大致分成四种类型。     

β—肾上腺素能受体介导的心肌细胞凋亡

作为交感神经系统主要递质的去甲肾上腺素在多种心脏疾病中诱导心肌细胞凋亡,这种诱导作用主要由肾上腺素能受体（β－AR）介导,β－AR还介导心肌细胞凋亡的信号转导,这对于了解心脏疾病的发病机理有一定的临床意义。     

Genetic regulation of beta 2-adrenergic receptors in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts.

The beta 2-adrenergic receptor from mouse 3T3-L1 cells is up-regulated through genetic mechanisms by glucocorticoids and butyrate. To study the genetic regulation of these receptors, we sequenced a 5 kb region of genomic DNA from 3T3-L1 cells, containing the beta-adrenergic receptor gene and approx. 1.5 kb of both 5' and 3' flanking sequences. The sequence contained one copy of an 8 bp consensus sequence which can confer phorbol ester-responsiveness to genes. Phorbol esters attenuated the up-regulation of beta 2-adrenergic receptors by glucocorticoids but not by butyrate. This effect was probably due to a phorbol ester-induced decrease in glucocorticoid receptor number. Using methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, we examined the methylation of a CG-rich region occurring 5' to the gene and did not detect any changes in methylation of this region upon dexamethasone or butyrate treatment. A total of 16 putative glucocorticoid response elements were found which may mediate the glucocorticoid-induced increase in beta 2-adrenergic receptors. A comparison of the regulatory sequences of the two beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes from human and mouse confirms the observed physiological controls of receptor subtype expression and offers an explanation as to why the subtypes differ in genetic regulation.     

The cardiac beta2-adrenergic signalling a new role for the cPLA2

The cardiac actions of catecholamines have long been attributed to the predominant beta(1)-AR subtype that couples to the classical Gs/AC/cAMP pathway. Recent research clearly indicates that cardiac beta(2)-ARs play a functional role in healthy heart and assume increasing importance in failing and aged heart. beta(2)-ARs are primarily coupled to an atypical compartmentalized cAMP pathway, regulated by phosphorylation and/or oligomerization of beta(2)-ARs, and under the control of additional beta(2)-AR/Gi-coupled lipidic pathways, the impact of which seems to vary depending on the animal species, the developmental and pathophysiological state. This review focuses, more especially, on one of the last identified beta(2)-AR/Gi pathway, namely the cPLA(2).     

The role of beta receptors in the regulation of renin release.

The effect of the primarily beta 2 type adrenergic receptor stimulating terbutaline (10(-7)--10(-5) M) and of the beta 1 and beta 2 type adrenergic receptor stimulating isoproterenol (10(-7)--10(-5) M) was studied on renin release from incubated slices of renal cortex. Renin release and cAMP content of the slices were significantly higher in the presence of both terbutaline and isoproterenol. A logarithmic dose--response relationship was shown to be present between the beta mimetics and the renin concentration in the medium, and the cAMP content of tissue slices. In equal doses isoproterenol was about 1.5 times more potent than terbutaline. No change was seen in the renin content of the tissue slices. The results supports the view that beside the beta 1 type adrenergic receptors of the renal cortex--even if to a lesser extent--the beta 2 type adrenergic receptors, too, are involved in the regulation of renin release.     

Functional activity and regulation of human beta 2-adrenergic receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The recently cloned human beta-adrenergic cDNA and several mutated forms have been expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes by injection of RNA made from the cDNA under the control of the bacteriophage SP6 promoter. The cDNA and gene of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor possess the unusual feature of having a second upstream ATG (-101 base pairs) and a 19-codon open reading frame 5' to the initiator methionine codon of the receptor (Kobilka, B. K., Dixon, R. A. F., Frielle, T., Dohlman, H. G., Bolanowski, M., Sigal, I. S., Yang-Feng, T. L., Francke, U., Caron, M. G., and Lefkowitz, R. J. (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84, 46-50). RNA lacking this upstream AUG and open reading frame was translated approximately 10-fold more efficiently both in an in vitro rabbit reticulocyte system and in oocytes. Injected oocytes but not water injected controls expressed typical beta 2-adrenergic receptors as assessed by ligand binding (450 fmol/mg membrane protein) and catecholamine-stimulated adenylate cyclase (approximately 20 fold). Moreover, these receptors displayed typical agonist-induced homologous desensitization when oocytes were incubated with isoproterenol at room temperature for 3-24 h. Among a series of mutations, truncations of the membrane-anchored core of the receptor eliminated receptor binding and cyclase stimulating activity. In contrast, disruption of one of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation sites or removal of the serine/threonine-rich carboxyl terminus had little or no effect on these functions or on the extent of agonist-induced desensitization relative to that observed with native receptor. These studies validate the beta 2-adrenergic nature of the cloned human beta-adrenergic cDNA, document the utility of the Xenopus oocyte system for studying functional and regulatory properties of receptors coupled to adenylate cyclase, and suggest the possibility that elements in the 5' untranslated region of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor RNA may regulate its translation in vivo.     

Altered function and regulation of cardiac ryanodine receptors in cardiac disease

In cardiac muscle, the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) releases the calcium required for muscle contraction. The magnitude of Ca²⁺ release by RyR2, which is subject to regulation by several physiological mediators, determines cardiac contractility. In heart failure, chronic stimulation of the β-adrenergic signaling pathway leads to hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 by protein kinase A, which dissociates calstabin2 (FKBP12.6) from the receptor. Calstabin2-depleted channels display altered channel gating and can cause diastolic Ca²⁺ release from the SR. This release depletes the SR Ca²⁺ stores, leading to reduced myocardial contractility. Mutant RyR2, found in patients with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, has decreased calstabin2 binding affinity, which can trigger ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death after stress and exercise. Thus, defects in RyR2 have been linked to heart failure and exercise-induced sudden cardiac death and might provide novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of these common diseases of the heart.     

Epinephrine regulation of the endothelial nitric-oxide synthase: roles of RAC1 and beta3-adrenergic receptors in endothelial NO signaling

beta-Adrenergic receptors (betaAR) play an important role in vasodilation, but the mechanisms whereby adrenergic pathways regulate the endothelial isoform of nitric-oxide synthase (eNOS) are incompletely understood. We found that epinephrine significantly increases eNOS activity in cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC). Epinephrine-dependent eNOS activation was accompanied by an increase in phosphorylation of eNOS at Ser(1179) and with decreased eNOS phosphorylation at the inhibitory phosphoresidues Ser(116) and Thr(497). Epinephrine promoted activation of the small G protein Rac1 and also led to the activation of protein kinase A. All of these responses to epinephrine in BAEC were blocked by the beta(3)AR blocker SR59230A. We transfected and validated duplex small interfering RNA (siRNA) constructs to selectively "knock down" specific signaling proteins in BAEC. siRNA-mediated knockdown of Rac1 completely blocked all beta(3)AR signaling to eNOS and also abrogated epinephrine-dependent cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and Akt activation. However, siRNA-mediated knockdown of PKA did not affect Rac1 activation by epinephrine but did attenuate Akt activation by epinephrine. These findings indicate that Rac1 is an upstream regulator of beta(3)AR signaling to PKA and to eNOS and identify a novel beta(3)AR --> Rac1 --> PKA --> Akt pathway in endothelium. We exploited the p21-activated kinase pulldown assay to identify proteins associated with activated Rac1 and found that epinephrine stimulated the association of eNOS with Rac1; epinephrine-stimulated eNOS-Rac1 interactions were blocked by the beta(3)AR antagonist SR59230A. Co-transfection of eNOS cDNA with constitutively active Rac1 enhanced beta(3)AR-promoted eNOS-Rac1 association; co-transfection of eNOS with dominant negative Rac1 completely blocked the eNOS-Rac1 association. We also found that epinephrine-induced Rac1 --> PKA --> Akt pathway mediates beta(3)AR-mediated endothelial cell migration. Taken together, our data establish that the small G protein Rac1 is a key regulator of beta(3)AR signaling in cultured aortic endothelial cells with potentially important implications for the pathways involved in adrenergic modulation of eNOS pathways in the vascular wall.     

The role of beta 2-adrenergic vascular receptors in the peripheral vasodilation caused by 17 beta-estradiol in anesthetized pigs

It has been previously shown in anesthetized pigs that intravenous infusion of 2 microg/h of 17beta-estradiol primarily dilated renal, iliac and coronary circulations, while higher doses of the hormone were required to cause vasodilation also in the mesenteric vascular bed. In the same experimental model, a tonic beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilation, which could be argued to attenuate the vasodilator effect of 17beta-estradiol, has been described. The present study was planned to investigate the role of beta2-adrenergic receptors in the hemodynamic responses of renal and mesenteric vascular beds to 17beta-estradiol. Changes in flow caused by intravenous infusion of 2 microg/h of the hormone at constant heart rate and aortic blood pressure in the left renal and superior mesenteric arteries were assessed using electromagnetic flowmeters. In six pigs, infusion of 17beta-estradiol caused an increase in renal blood flow, which averaged 12.1% of the control values, without affecting mesenteric blood flow. In the same pigs, after hemodynamic variables had returned to the baseline values, blockade of beta2-adrenergic receptors with butoxamine caused an increase in aortic blood pressure and an increase in renal and mesenteric resistance. The subsequent infusion of 17beta-estradiol elicited increases in renal and mesenteric blood flow which respectively averaged 19.6% and 12.8%. Therefore, the present study in anesthetized pigs have shown that the vasodilator responses of the renal and mesenteric circulations to 17beta-estradiol were attenuated and even masked by a tonic beta2-adrenoceptor mediated vasodilation. This indicates that some vasodilator effects elicited by normally used replacement doses of the hormone may not be apparent.     

Expression of human alpha 2-adrenergic receptors in adipose tissue of beta 3-adrenergic receptor-deficient mice promotes diet-induced obesity

Catecholamines play an important role in controlling white adipose tissue function and development. beta- and alpha 2-adrenergic receptors (ARs) couple positively and negatively, respectively, to adenylyl cyclase and are co-expressed in human adipocytes. Previous studies have demonstrated increased adipocyte alpha 2/beta-AR balance in obesity, and it has been proposed that increased alpha 2-ARs in adipose tissue with or without decreased beta-ARs may contribute mechanistically to the development of increased fat mass. To critically test this hypothesis, adipocyte alpha 2/beta-AR balance was genetically manipulated in mice. Human alpha 2A-ARs were transgenically expressed in the adipose tissue of mice that were either homozygous (-/-) or heterozygous (+/-) for a disrupted beta 3-AR allele. Mice expressing alpha 2-ARs in fat, in the absence of beta 3-ARs (beta 3-AR -/- background), developed high fat diet-induced obesity. Strikingly, this effect was due entirely to adipocyte hyperplasia and required the presence of alpha2-ARs, the absence of beta 3-ARs, and a high fat diet. Of note, obese alpha 2-transgenic beta 3 -/- mice failed to develop insulin resistance, which may reflect the fact that expanded fat mass was due to adipocyte hyperplasia and not adipocyte hypertrophy. In summary, we have demonstrated that increased alpha 2/beta-AR balance in adipocytes promotes obesity by stimulating adipocyte hyperplasia. This study also demonstrates one way in which two genes (alpha 2 and beta 3-AR) and diet interact to influence fat mass.