Sphingosine kinases and sphingosine-1-phosphate are critical for transforming growth factor beta-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 activation and promotion of migration and invasion of esophageal cancer cells

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) plays a dual role in oncogenesis, acting as both a tumor suppressor and a tumor promoter. These disparate processes of suppression and promotion are mediated primarily by Smad and non-Smad signaling, respectively. A central issue in understanding the role of TGFbeta in the progression of epithelial cancers is the elucidation of the mechanisms underlying activation of non-Smad signaling cascades. Because the potent lipid mediator sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has been shown to transactivate the TGFbeta receptor and activate Smad3, we examined its role in TGFbeta activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and promotion of migration and invasion of esophageal cancer cells. Both S1P and TGFbeta activate ERK1/2, but only TGFbeta activates Smad3. Both ligands promoted ERK1/2-dependent migration and invasion. Furthermore, TGFbeta rapidly increased S1P, which was required for TGFbeta-induced ERK1/2 activation, as well as migration and invasion, since downregulation of sphingosine kinases, the enzymes that produce S1P, inhibited these responses. Finally, our data demonstrate that TGFbeta activation of ERK1/2, as well as induction of migration and invasion, is mediated at least in part by ligation of the S1P receptor, S1PR2. Thus, these studies provide the first evidence that TGFbeta activation of sphingosine kinases and formation of S1P contribute to non-Smad signaling and could be important for progression of esophageal cancer.     

The role of proteases in transforming growth factor-beta activation

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) plays a central role in a number of developmental and pathological processes. There are 3 isoforms of TGFbeta (1-3) and all are sequestered in the extracellular matrix as latent complexes. Activation of this complex is the key biological checkpoint controlling TGF-beta bioavailability. This process is tightly regulated in a temporal, spatial and isoform specific manner highlighting its importance. There are many different mechanisms by which TGF-beta can be activated. Both serine and metalloproteinases play an important role in TGF-beta activation, at least in vitro, and many of these proteases have been implicated in pathological conditions. The mechanism of activation is distinct between the different proteases, but is not conserved between the two groups. Both serine proteases, such as plasmin, and metalloproteases, such as MMP2, can directly cleave latent TGFbeta, whereas others, such as thrombin and MMP14, interact with integrin mediated TGFbeta activation pathways. However, further studies are still required to fully understand the relevance of all of these pathways in vivo. Currently, the best described mechanism of TGF-beta1 activation in vivo is by integrins, although this process can be modulated by proteases. The primary mechanism of TGF-beta2 and TGF-beta3 activation has yet to be defined in vivo, although it is likely that TGF-beta3 is activated in a similar manner to TGF-beta1. This review describes the mechanism of protease driven TGF-beta activation, and discusses the physiological and pathological relevance of this process.     

Activation of transforming growth factor beta by Trypanosoma cruzi

The anti-inflammatory cytokine, transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), plays an important role in Chagas disease, which is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. In the current study, we show that the addition of an anti-TGFbeta antibody inhibited T. cruzi infection of cardiomyocytes, demonstrating the requirement for active endogenous TGFbeta. As TGFbeta is synthesized as a biologically inactive precursor, which is proteolytically processed to yield a mature, active homodimer, we hypothesized that T. cruzi could activate latent TGFbeta. To test this, we added recombinant latent TGFbeta to a TGFbeta-responsive reporter cell line in the presence of T. cruzi. We observed that T. cruzi was able to activate latent recombinant TGFbeta in this cellular model. We then investigated the ability of T. cruzi to activate latent TGFbetain vitro. We found that live T. cruzi, or cytosolic extracts of T. cruzi, activated latent TGFbeta in a dose- and temperature-dependent manner. The agent involved in TGFbeta activation was shown to be thermolabile and hydrophobic. Taken together, our studies demonstrate that T. cruzi directly activates latent TGFbeta. This activation is required for parasite entry into the mammalian cells and is likely to play an important role in modulating the outcome of T. cruzi infection.     

A genetic screen to identify latent transforming growth factor beta activators

The mechanisms by which latent transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) is converted to the active cytokine are largely unknown. Here we present a genetic screen that combines retroviral mutagenesis and cDNA expression cloning to reveal proteins involved in the extracellular regulation of latent TGFbeta activation. The screen employs a cell line engineered to express green fluorescent protein (GFP) in response to TGFbeta. The cells produce their own latent TGFbeta. Therefore, after transduction with a retroviral cDNA library that contains an insert for an activator of latent TGFbeta, cells expressing the activator are GFP-bright. These cells are enriched by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and grown as individual clones. The isolated clones are cocultured with a second TGFbeta reporter cell line that produces luciferase in response to TGFbeta. Cells that have acquired the ability to activate latent TGFbeta induce luciferase expression in the absence but not in the presence of neutralizing antibodies to TGFbeta. The activator expressed by the positive clones can be identified by retrieval of the retrovirus cDNA insert.     

Autocrine role of transforming growth factor beta1 on rat granulosa cell proliferation

We evaluated the effects of transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1), alone or in combination with FSH and estradiol, on DNA synthesis in primary cultures of immature rat granulosa cells. 3H-Thymidine incorporation was significantly stimulated by TGFbeta1 (5.6-fold). This effect was enhanced by FSH (20 ng/ml, 27.7-fold) or estradiol (100 ng/ml, 13.4-fold) or by a combination of both hormones (59.2-fold). Measurement of TGFbeta bioactivity showed the presence of significant amounts of TGFbeta in conditioned medium from granulosa cell cultures, and most of the activity was present in the latent form. FSH alone or in combination with estradiol produced a marked suppression of the production of latent and active TGFbeta. Activated conditioned medium from control cultures of granulosa cell elicited a 1.4-fold increase in thymidine incorporation. This effect was markedly amplified by FSH (3-fold) and estradiol (4.3-fold) and by a combination of both (8.7-fold). The peptide containing the cell-binding domain of fibronectin (RGDSPC) partially inhibited thymidine incorporation stimulated by TGFbeta1. Fibronectin did not synergize with FSH, and the interaction between TGFbeta1 and FSH was even observed in the presence of this protein. The conclusions reached were as follows: 1) TGFbeta1 is an autocrine stimulator of rat granulosa cell DNA synthesis, 2) FSH and estradiol produce a suppression of latent and active TGFbeta production but markedly amplify TGFbeta action, presumably at a postreceptor level, and 3) the stimulatory effects of TGFbeta1 may be only partly mediated by the increased fibronectin secretion.     

Molecular mechanisms of TGF beta receptor-triggered signaling cascades rapidly induced by the calcineurin inhibitors cyclosporin A and FK506

The calcineurin inhibitor (CNI)-induced renal fibrosis is attributed to an exaggerated deposition of extracellular matrix, which is mainly due to an increased expression of TGFbeta. Herein we demonstrate that the CNI cyclosporin A and tacrolimus (FK506), independent of TGFbeta synthesis, rapidly activate TGFbeta/Smad signaling in cultured mesangial cells and in whole kidney samples from CNI-treated rats. By EMSA, we demonstrate increased DNA binding of Smad-2, -3, and -4 to a cognate Smad-binding promoter element (SBE) accompanied by CNI-triggered activation of Smad-dependent expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloprotease-1 (TIMP-1) and connective tissue growth factor. Using an activin receptor-like kinase-5 (ALK-5) inhibitor and by small interfering RNA we depict a critical involvement of both types of TGFbeta receptors in CNI-triggered Smad signaling and fibrogenic gene expression, respectively. Mechanistically, CNI cause a rapid activation of latent TGFbeta, which is prevented in the presence of the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine. A convergent activation of p38 MAPK is indicated by the partial blockade of CNI-induced Smad-2 activation by SB203580; conversely, both TGFbeta-RII and TGFbeta are critically involved in p38 MAPK activation by CNI. Activation of both signaling pathways is similarly triggered by reactive oxygen species. Finally, we show that neutralization of TGFbeta markedly reduced the CNI-dependent Smad activation in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, this study demonstrates that CNI via reactive oxygen species generation activate latent TGFbeta and thereby initiate the canonical Smad pathway by simultaneously activating p38 MAPK, which both synergistically induce Smad-driven gene expression.     

Caspase- and serine protease-dependent apoptosis by the death domain of FADD in normal epithelial cells

The adapter protein FADD consists of two protein interaction domains: a death domain and a death effector domain. The death domain binds to activated death receptors such as Fas, whereas the death effector domain binds to procaspase 8. An FADD mutant, which consists of only the death domain (FADD-DD), inhibits death receptor-induced apoptosis. FADD-DD can also activate a mechanistically distinct, cell type-specific apoptotic pathway that kills normal but not cancerous prostate epithelial cells. Here, we show that this apoptosis occurs through activation of caspases 9, 3, 6, and 7 and a serine protease. Simultaneous inhibition of caspases and serine proteases prevents FADD-DD-induced death. Inhibition of either pathway alone does not prevent cell death but does affect the morphology of the dying cells. Normal prostate epithelial cells require both the caspase and serine protease inhibitors to efficiently prevent apoptosis in response to TRAIL. In contrast, the serine protease inhibitor does not affect TRAIL-induced death in prostate tumor cells suggesting that the FADD-DD-dependent pathway can be activated by TRAIL. This apoptosis pathway is activated in a cell type-specific manner that is defective in cancer cells, suggesting that this pathway may be targeted during cancer development.     

Engineering of human coagulation factor X variants activated by prostate-specific antigen

In this study, we present a novel approach for the induction of tumor vessel thrombosis using genetically modified coagulation factor X. Human factor X was engineered in its activation peptide in a way that it can be specifically activated by prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a tumor-specific proteinase secreted into the bloodstream by prostate cancer cells. For this purpose we inserted different sequences of known PSA cleavage sites from the natural substrate of PSA, semenogelin I, into the activation peptide of factor X. One FX variant (FX-V4) was further optimized by site-directed mutagenesis of the P2 position and the P5 position (FX-V4-P2YP5R). After preincubation with PSA, FX-V4-P2YP5R was able to efficiently induce coagulation in vitro. These FX variants should be useful for site-specific induction of blood coagulation in the tumor vasculature.     

Stemness markers characterize IGR-CaP1, a new cell line derived from primary epithelial prostate cancer

Deciphering molecular pathways involved in the early steps of prostate oncogenesis requires both in vitro and in vivo models derived from human primary tumors. However the few recognized models of human prostate epithelial cancer originate from metastases. To date, very few models are proposed from primary tumors and immortalizing normal human prostate cells does not recapitulate the natural history of the disease. By culturing human prostate primary tumor cells onto human epithelial extra-cellular matrix, we successfully selected a new prostate cancer cell line, IGR-CaP1, and clonally-derived subclones. IGR-CaP1 cells, that harbor a tetraploid karyotype, high telomerase activity and mutated TP53, rapidly induced subcutaneous xenografts in nude mice. Furthermore, IGR-CaP1 cell lines, all exhibiting negativity for the androgen receptor and PSA, express the specific prostate markers alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase and a low level of the prostate-specific membrane antigen PSMA, along with the prostate basal epithelial markers CK5 and CK14. More importantly, these clones express high CD44, CD133, and CXCR4 levels associated with high expression of α2β1-integrin and Oct4 which are reported to be prostate cancer stemness markers. RT-PCR data also revealed high activation of the Sonic Hedgehog signalling pathway in these cells. Additionally, the IGR-CaP1 cells possess a 3D sphere-forming ability and a renewal capacity by maintaining their CSC potential after xenografting in mice. As a result, the hormone-independent IGR-CaP1 cellular clones exhibit the original features of both basal prostate tissue and cancer stemness. Tumorigenic IGR-CaP1 clones constitute invaluable human models for studying prostate cancer progression and drug assessment in vitro as well as in animals specifically for developing new therapeutic approaches targeting prostate cancer stem cells.     

Identification of novel prostate-specific antigen-binding peptides modulating its enzyme activity.

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a serine protease with highly prostate-specific expression. Measurement of PSA in serum is widely used for diagnosis and monitoring of prostate cancer. PSA dissolves the seminal gel forming after ejaculation. It has been suggested to mediate invasion and metastasis of prostate cancer but also to exert antiangiogenic activity. We have identified peptides specific for PSA by screening cyclic phage display peptide libraries. PSA-binding peptides were isolated from four different libraries and produced as a fusion protein with glutathione S-transferase (GST). The phage and fusion proteins were shown to bind to PSA specifically as indicated by lack of binding to other serine proteinases. A peptide with four cysteines showed the highest affinity for PSA. Zn2+, an inhibitor of PSA activity, increased the affinity of the peptides to PSA. The binding specificity was characterized by cross-inhibition using monoclonal anti-PSA antibodies of known epitope specificities. The peptides bound to the same region as mAbs specific for free PSA indicating that they bind close to the active site of the enzyme. The peptides enhanced the enzyme activity of PSA against a chromogenic substrate. These results show that peptides binding to PSA and modulating its enzyme activity can be developed by phage display technique. The peptides have the potential to be used for identification of PSA variants and for imaging and targeting of prostatic tumors.     

Production and activation of recombinant hK2 with propeptide mutations resulting in high expression levels.

Human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2) is a serine protease expressed mainly by the prostate gland with 80% identity in primary structure to prostate specific antigen (PSA). hK2 has proven to be a useful marker of prostate cancer which can be used in combination with PSA to better discriminate between prostate cancer and benign prostate hyperplasia. The studies on hK2 have been hampered by its very low phyciological levels (6 microgram.mL-1), its close similarity to PSA, and the low expression levels obtained using recombinant procedures to produce hK2 (0.7 mg.L-1). We have now generated propeptide mutations of hK2 which can be used to isolate stable, inactive prohK2 mutants. Compared with wild-type hK2, expression of the propeptide hK2 mutants increases the expression levels up to 15-40-fold giving 10-30 mg hK2.L-1. These results indicate that the low expression levels of wild-type hK2 are related to the activation or autoactivation of the wild-type enzyme and the instability of the active protease in cell culture and possibly also in tissue. The purified mutant hK2 may be activated by either enterokinase or factor Xa to generate an enzyme for use in functional studies with the characteristics of the original wild-type protein. Further, the stable inactive mutant hK2 protein may be used for immunizations to generate novel monoclonal antibodies, used as standard material for clinical assays or in crystallization studies where large quantities of protein are required.     

Intracellular cargo delivery by an octaarginine transporter adapted to target prostate cancer cells through cell surface protease activation

Delivery of therapeutics and imaging agents to target tissues requires localization and activation strategies with molecular specificity. Cell-associated proteases can be used for these purposes in a number of pathologic conditions, and their enzymatic activities can be exploited for activation strategies. Here, molecules based on the d-arginine octamer (r8) protein-transduction domain (PTD, also referred to as molecular transporters) have been adapted for selective uptake into cells only after proteolytic cleavage of a PTD-attenuating sequence by the prostate-specific antigen (PSA), an extracellular protease associated with the surface and microenvironment of certain prostate cancer cells. Convergent syntheses of these activatable PTDs (APTDs) are described, and the most effective r8 PTD-attenuating sequence is identified. The conjugates are shown to be stable in serum, cleaved by PSA, and taken up into Jurkat (human T cells) and PC3M prostate cancer cell lines only after cleavage by PSA. These APTD peptide-based molecules may facilitate targeted delivery of therapeutics or imaging agents to PSA-expressing prostate cancers.     

Enzymatic action of human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2). Substrate specificity and regulation by Zn2+ and extracellular protease inhibitors.

Human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2) is a serine protease expressed by the prostate gland with 80% identity in primary structure to prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Recently, hK2 was shown to activate the zymogen form of PSA (proPSA) in vitro and is likely to be the physiological activator of PSA in the prostate. hK2 is also able to activate urokinase and effectively cleave fibronectin. We studied the substrate specificity of hK2 and regulation of its activity by zinc and extracellular protease inhibitors present in the prostate and seminal plasma. The enzymatic activity and substrate specificity was studied by determining hK2 cleavage sites in the major gel proteins in semen, semenogelin I and II, and by measuring hydrolysis of various tripeptide aminomethylcoumarin substrates. HK2 cleaves substrates C-terminal of single or double arginines. Basic amino acids were also occasionally found at several other positions N-terminal of the cleavage site. Therefore, the substrate specificity of hK2 fits in well with that of a processor of protein precursors. Possible regulation mechanisms were studied by testing the ability of Zn2+ and different protease inhibitors to inhibit hK2 by kinetic measurements. Inhibitory constants were determined for the most effective inhibitors PCI and Zn2+. The high affinity of PCI for hK2 (kass = 2.0 x 10(5) M-1 x s-1) and the high concentrations of PCI (4 microM) and hK2 (0.2 microM) in seminal plasma make hK2 a very likely physiological target protease for PCI. hK2 is inhibited by Zn2+ at micromolar concentrations well below the 9 mM zinc concentration found in the prostate. The enzymatic activity of hK2 is likely to be reversibly regulated by Zn2+ in prostatic fluid. This regulation may be impaired in CAP and advanced metastatic cancer resulting in lack of control of the hK2 activity and a need for other means of control.     

Structural investigation of the alpha-1-antichymotrypsin: prostate-specific antigen complex by comparative model building.

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), produced by prostate cells, provides an excellent serum marker for prostate cancer. It belongs to the human kallikrein family of enzymes, a second prostate-derived member of which is human glandular kallikrein-1 (hK2). Active PSA and hK2 are both 237-residue kallikrein-like proteases, based on sequence homology. An hK2 model structure based on the serine protease fold is presented and compared to PSA and six other serine proteases in order to analyze in depth the role of the surface-accessible loops surrounding the active site. The results show that PSA and hK2 share extensive structural similarity and that most amino acid replacements are centered on the loops surrounding the active site. Furthermore, the electrostatic potential surfaces are very similar for PSA and hK2. PSA interacts with at least two serine protease inhibitors (serpins): alpha-1-antichymotrypsin (ACT) and protein C inhibitor (PCI). Three-dimensional model structures of the uncleaved ACT molecule were developed based upon the recent X-ray structure of uncleaved antithrombin. The serpin was docked both to PSA and hK2. Amino acid replacements and electrostatic complementarities indicate that the overall orientation of the proteins in these complexes is reasonable. In order to investigate PSA's heparin interaction sites, electrostatic computations were carried out on PSA, hK2, protein C, ACT, and PCI. Two heparin binding sites are suggested on the PSA surface and could explain the enhanced complex formation between PSA and PCI, while inhibiting the formation of the ACT-PSA complex, PSA, hK2, and their preliminary complexes with ACT should facilitate the understanding and prediction of structural and functional properties for these important proteins also with respect to prostate diseases.