Argonaute loading improves the 5' precision of both MicroRNAs and their miRNA* strands in flies

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short regulatory RNAs that direct repression of their mRNA targets. The miRNA "seed"-nucleotides 2-7-establishes target specificity by mediating target binding. Accurate processing of the miRNA 5' end is thought to be under strong selective pressure because a shift by just one nucleotide in the 5' end of a miRNA alters its seed sequence, redefining its repertoire of targets (Figure 1). Animal miRNAs are produced by the sequential cleavage of partially double-stranded precursors by the RNase III endonucleases Drosha and Dicer, thereby generating a transitory double-stranded intermediate comprising the miRNA paired to its partially complementary miRNA strand. Here, we report that in flies, the 5' ends of miRNAs and miRNA strands are typically more precisely defined than their 3' ends. Surprisingly, the precision of the 5' ends of both miRNA and miRNA sequences increases after Argonaute2 (Ago2) loading. Our data imply that either many miRNA sequences are under evolutionary pressure to maintain their seed sequences-that is, they have targets-or that secondary constraints, such as the sequence requirements for loading small RNAs into functional Argonaute complexes, narrow the range of miRNA and miRNA 5' ends that accumulate in flies.     

A whole-genome RNAi Screen for C. elegans miRNA pathway genes

BACKGROUND: miRNAs are an abundant class of small, endogenous regulatory RNAs. Although it is now appreciated that miRNAs are involved in a broad range of biological processes, relatively little is known about the actual mechanism by which miRNAs downregulate target gene expression. An exploration of which protein cofactors are necessary for a miRNA to downregulate a target gene should reveal more fully the molecular mechanisms by which miRNAs are processed, trafficked, and regulate their target genes. RESULTS: A weak allele of the C. elegans miRNA gene let-7 was used as a sensitized genetic background for a whole-genome RNAi screen to detect miRNA pathway genes, and 213 candidate miRNA pathway genes were identified. About 2/3 of the 61 candidates with the strongest phenotype were validated through genetic tests examining the dependence of the let-7 phenotype on target genes known to function in the let-7 pathway. Biochemical tests for let-7 miRNA production place the function of nearly all of these new miRNA pathway genes downstream of let-7 expression and processing. By monitoring the downregulation of the protein product of the lin-14 mRNA, which is the target of the lin-4 miRNA, we have identified 19 general miRNA pathway genes. CONCLUSIONS: The 213 candidate miRNA pathway genes identified could act at steps that produce and traffic miRNAs or in downstream steps that detect miRNA::mRNA duplexes to regulate mRNA translation. The 19 validated general miRNA pathway genes are good candidates for genes that may define protein cofactors for sorting or targeting miRNA::mRNA duplexes, or for recognizing the miRNA base-paired to the target mRNA to downregulate translation.     

Alternative Processing of Primary microRNA Transcripts by Drosha Generates 5′ End Variation of Mature microRNA

Background

It is generally believed that the miRNA processing machinery ensures the generation of a mature miRNA with a fixed sequence, particularly at its 5′ end. However, we and others have recently noted that the ends of a given mature miRNA are not absolutely fixed, but subject to variation. Neither the significance nor the mechanism behind the generation of such miRNA polymorphism is understood. miR-142 is an abundantly expressed miRNA in hematopoietic cells and exhibits a high frequency of 5′ end polymorphism.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here we show that a shift in the Drosha processing of pri-miRNA generates multiple forms of miR-142s in vivo with differing 5′ ends that might target different genes. Sequence analysis of several pre-miRNA ends cloned from T cells reveals that unlike many other pri-miRNAs that are processed into a single pre-miRNA, pri-miR-142 is processed into 3 distinct pre-miR-142s. Dicer processing studies suggest that each of the 3 pre-miR-142s is processed into a distinct double-stranded miRNA, giving rise to 4 mature miRNA variants that might regulate different target gene pools.

Conclusions/Significance

Thus, alternative Drosha processing might be a novel mechanism for diversification of the miRNA target gene pool.     

Selection on Synonymous Sites for Increased Accessibility around miRNA Binding Sites in Plants

Synonymous codons are widely selected for various biological mechanisms in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Recent evidence suggests that microRNA (miRNA) function may affect synonymous codon choices near miRNA target sites. To better understand this, we perform genome-wide analysis on synonymous codon usage around miRNA target sites in four plant genomes. We observed a general trend of increased site accessibility around miRNA target sites in plants. Guanine-cytosine (GC)-poor codons are preferred in the flank region of miRNA target sites. Within-genome analyses show significant variation among miRNA targets in species. GC content of the target gene can partly explain the variation of site accessibility among miRNA targets. miRNA targets in GC-rich genes show stronger selection signals than those in GC-poor genes. Gene's codon usage bias and the conservation level of miRNA and its target also have some effects on site accessibility, but the expression level of miRNA or its target and the mechanism of miRNA activity do not contribute to site accessibility differences among miRNA targets. We suggest that synonymous codons near miRNA targets are selected for efficient miRNA binding and proper miRNA function. Our results present a new dimension of natural selection on synonymous codons near miRNA target sites in plants, which will have important implications of coding sequence evolution.     

Structural improvement of LidNA: delta-type LidNA is a potent miRNA inhibitor constructed with unmodified DNA

ABSTRACT

Many miRNA inhibitors have been developed, including chemically modified oligonucleotides, such as 2′-O-methylated RNA and locked nucleic acid (LNA). Unmodified DNA has not yet been reported as a miRNA inhibitor due to relatively low DNA/miRNA binding affinity. We designed a structured DNA, LidNA, which was constructed with unmodified DNA, consisting of a complementary sequence to the target miRNA flanked by two structured DNA regions, such as double-stranded DNA. LidNA inhibited miRNA activity more potently than 2′-O-methylated RNA or LNA. To optimize LidNA, two double-stranded regions were joined, causing the molecule to assume a delta-like shape, which we termed delta-type LidNA. Delta-type LidNAs were developed to target endogenous and exogenous miRNAs, and exhibited potent miRNA inhibitory effects with a duration of at least 10 days. Delta-type LidNA-21, which targeted miR-21, inhibited the growth of cancer cell lines. This newly developed LidNA could contribute to miRNA studies across multiple fields.

Abbreviations: LidNA: DNA that puts a lid on miRNA function; LNA: locked nucleic acid; 3′-UTR: 3′-untranslated regions; RISC: RNA-induced silencing complex; MBL: Molecular beacon-like LidNA; YMBL: Y-type molecular beacon-like LidNA; TDMD: target-directed microRNA degradation.     

A Collection of Target Mimics for Comprehensive Analysis of MicroRNA Function in Arabidopsis thaliana

Many targets of plant microRNAs (miRNAs) are thought to play important roles in plant physiology and development. However, because plant miRNAs are typically encoded by medium-size gene families, it has often been difficult to assess their precise function. We report the generation of a large-scale collection of knockdowns for Arabidopsis thaliana miRNA families; this has been achieved using artificial miRNA target mimics, a recently developed technique fashioned on an endogenous mechanism of miRNA regulation. Morphological defects in the aerial part were observed for ∼20% of analyzed families, all of which are deeply conserved in land plants. In addition, we find that non-cleavable mimic sites can confer translational regulation in cis. Phenotypes of plants expressing target mimics directed against miRNAs involved in development were in several cases consistent with previous reports on plants expressing miRNA–resistant forms of individual target genes, indicating that a limited number of targets mediates most effects of these miRNAs. That less conserved miRNAs rarely had obvious effects on plant morphology suggests that most of them do not affect fundamental aspects of development. In addition to insight into modes of miRNA action, this study provides an important resource for the study of miRNA function in plants.     

MicroRNA-guided processing impairs Plum pox virus replication, but the virus readily evolves to escape this silencing mechanism

Since the discovery of microRNA (miRNA)-guided processing, a new type of RNA silencing, the possibility that such a mechanism could play a role in virus defense has been proposed. In this work, we have analyzed whether Plum pox virus (PPV) chimeras bearing miRNA target sequences (miR171, miR167, and miR159), which have been reported to be functional in Arabidopsis, were affected by miRNA function in three different host plants. Some of these PPV chimeras had clearly impaired infectivity compared with those carrying nonfunctional miRNA target sequences. The behaviors of PPV chimeras were similar but not identical in all the plants tested, and the deleterious effect on virus infectivity depended on the miRNA sequence cloned and on the site of insertion in the viral genome. The effect of the miRNA target sequence was drastically alleviated in transgenic plants expressing the silencing suppressor P1/HCPro. Furthermore, we show that virus chimeras readily escape RNA silencing interference through mutations within the miRNA target sequence, which mainly affected nucleotides matching the 5'-terminal region of the miRNA.     

Identification of MicroRNA Target Genes in Vivo

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs transcribed from intergenic or intronic sequences as long precursors that are sequentially processed by the endonucleases Drosha and Dicer into short double-stranded sequences. It is clear that miRNAs play essential roles in gene expression, development, and cell fate specification in animals. However, one of the barriers of miRNA research is how to find the target genes. In this study, we have developed a rapid and effective method to isolate miRNA target genes in vivo. MicroRNA was synthesized in vitro and labeled by biotin. After transfected into cells, the miRNA/mRNA complexes were isolated by streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. hsa-miR155 was taken as model to validate this method, which is a very important modulator in tumor development. It is useful for validation of targets predicted in silico, and, potentially, for discovery of previously uncharacterized targets.     

DRB2, DRB3 and DRB5 function in a non-canonical microRNA pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana

DOUBLE-STRANDED RNA BINDING (DRB) proteins have been functionally characterized in viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes and are involved in all aspects of RNA biology. Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) encodes five closely related DRB proteins, DRB1 to DRB5. DRB1 and DRB4 are required by DICER-LIKE (DCL) proteins DCL1 and DCL4 to accurately and efficiently process structurally distinct double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) precursor substrates in the microRNA (miRNA) and trans-acting small-interfering RNA (tasiRNA) biogenesis pathways respectively. We recently reported that DRB2 is also involved in the biogenesis of specific miRNA subsets.1 Furthermore, the severity of the developmental phenotype displayed by the drb235 triple mutant plant, compared with those expressed by either drb2, drb3 and drb5 single mutants, or double mutant combinations thereof, indicates that DRB3 and DRB5 function in the same non-canonical miRNA pathway as DRB2. Through the use of our artificial miRNA (amiRNA) plant expression vector, pBlueGreen2,3 we demonstrate here that unlike DRB2, DRB3 and DRB5 are not involved in the dsRNA processing stages of the miRNA biogenesis pathway, but are required to mediate RNA silencing of target genes of DRB2-associated miRNAs.     

microRNA与结核病诊断的研究进展

microRNA(miRNA)是一类存在于真核细胞中的非编码小RNA,可以调控基因转录后表达。人体中30%以上的基因都受miRNA的调控,同时miRNA还可作为不同生理和病理状态的分子标记。尽管已经在各种生物中预测并证实了数百种miRNA,但miRNA及其靶基因的明确作用机制和功能尚不完全明了。许多研究表明,miRNA与肺部疾病感染的发生、发展及转化有着密切的关联。miRNA在肺部疾病的正负调节功能为细菌性肺部疾病的诊断和治疗提供了新方向。我们简述了miRNA在潜伏性肺结核病和活动性肺结核病诊断领域的研究进展。     

Sorting of Drosophila small silencing RNAs

In Drosophila, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), which direct RNA interference through the Argonaute protein Ago2, are produced by a biogenesis pathway distinct from microRNAs (miRNAs), which regulate endogenous mRNA expression as guides for Ago1. Here, we report that siRNAs and miRNAs are sorted into Ago1 and Ago2 by pathways independent from the processes that produce these two classes of small RNAs. Such small-RNA sorting reflects the structure of the double-stranded assembly intermediates--the miRNA/miRNA( *) and siRNA duplexes--from which Argonaute proteins are loaded. We find that the Dcr-2/R2D2 heterodimer acts as a gatekeeper for the assembly of Ago2 complexes, promoting the incorporation of siRNAs and disfavoring miRNAs as loading substrates for Drosophila Ago2. A separate mechanism acts in parallel to favor miRNA/miRNA( *) duplexes and exclude siRNAs from assembly into Ago1 complexes. Thus, in flies small-RNA duplexes are actively sorted into Argonaute-containing complexes according to their intrinsic structures.     

Uncoupling of lin-14 mRNA and protein repression by nutrient deprivation in Caenorhabditis elegans

In animals, microRNAs (miRNAs), typically, pair to sites of partial complementarity in the 3′-untranslated regions (3′UTRs) of target genes. Regulation by miRNAs often results in down-regulation of target mRNA and protein expression by mechanisms that are yet to be fully elucidated. Additionally, changes in environmental conditions have been shown to influence miRNA function in some cell culture systems. Here, we report the effect of nutrient deprivation on regulation of an endogenous miRNA target in developing worms. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the lin-4 miRNA recognizes multiple sites in the lin-14 3′UTR and directs mRNA degradation and translational repression, but it is unclear how these processes are coupled. In this study, we demonstrate that nutrient deprivation results in loss of lin-14 mRNA, but not protein, repression. In worms removed from feeding conditions, lin-14 mRNA reaccumulates despite the continued expression of lin-4 miRNA. The relative increase in lin-14 mRNA levels during nutrient deprivation is less pronounced in genetic mutants lacking lin-4 miRNA or the lin-14 3′UTR target sites. In conclusion, regulation of lin-14 at the mRNA and protein levels can be uncoupled by changes in culture conditions, indicating that miRNA function can be modulated by environment in multicellular organisms. The awareness that endogenous miRNA pathways can be sensitive to environment is an important consideration for elucidating the mechanism used by miRNAs to regulate target mRNA and protein expression.     

Artificial microRNA-mediated virus resistance in plants

RNA silencing in plants is a natural defense system against foreign genetic elements including viruses. This natural antiviral mechanism has been adopted to develop virus-resistant plants through expression of virus-derived double-stranded RNAs or hairpin RNAs, which in turn are processed into small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) by the host's RNA silencing machinery. While these virus-specific siRNAs were shown to be a hallmark of the acquired virus resistance, the functionality of another set of the RNA silencing-related small RNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs), in engineering plant virus resistance has not been extensively explored. Here we show that expression of an artificial miRNA, targeting sequences encoding the silencing suppressor 2b of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), can efficiently inhibit 2b gene expression and protein suppressor function in transient expression assays and confer on transgenic tobacco plants effective resistance to CMV infection. Moreover, the resistance level conferred by the transgenic miRNA is well correlated to the miRNA expression level. Comparison of the anti-CMV effect of the artificial miRNA to that of a short hairpin RNA-derived small RNA targeting the same site revealed that the miRNA approach is superior to the approach using short hairpin RNA both in transient assays and in transgenic plants. Together, our data demonstrate that expression of virus-specific artificial miRNAs is an effective and predictable new approach to engineering resistance to CMV and, possibly, to other plant viruses as well.     

Abundance of microRNA target motifs in the 3'-UTRs of 20527 human genes

A mechanism, selective avoidance, proposes that microRNA (miRNA) target sites are selectively depleted in the 3'-UTRs of genes expressed at the same time and place as a miRNA. If this mechanism is ubiquitous, the target motif occurrences in the 3'-UTRs would be decreased. To test this hypothesis, we examined miRNA target motif occurrences in the 3'- and 5'-UTRs of 20527 human protein-coding genes. The results revealed that miRNA target motifs appeared more frequently than non-target motifs and were enriched in the 3'-UTRs. This enrichment was relatively reduced in a set of 2525 genes coexpressed with miR-124a in the prefrontal cortex, but still remained at a high level, suggesting that miRNA target motifs are fostered by some other factors that surpass the influence of selective avoidance.     

马蔺根系响应Cd胁迫的miRNA高通量测序分析

为了解Cd胁迫下马蔺﹝Iris lactea var. chinensis ( Fisch.) Koidz.〕根系miRNA的表达模式,采用高通量测序法对100μmol·L-1 Cd胁迫0(CK)和24 h(Cd)后马蔺根系的sRNA文库(分别为CK和Cd文库)进行分析,筛选出显著差异表达的miRNA,并对这些miRNA的靶基因功能进行预测;在此基础上,采用qRT-PCR技术对部分miRNA及其靶基因的表达模式进行验证。结果表明：在CK和Cd文库中,未注释的sRNA序列较多,分别占各自sRNA特异序列总数的86.4%和80.5%;在已注释的sRNA序列中,miRNA所占比例最低(分别为0.3%和0.5%),而rRNA所占比例最高(分别为9.4%和11.8%);2个文库中的sRNA长度主要为21~24 nt,且均以21 nt为最多。从Cd胁迫下马蔺根系sRNA中共筛选出32个显著差异表达的miRNA,其中20个miRNA表达量下调(分别属于miR165、miR166、miR167、miR168、miR390和miR396家族),12个miRNA表达量上调。功能预测结果表明：这些miRNA靶基因的功能主要集中在生物学过程、细胞组分和分子功能3个方面;而从KEGG通路富集分析看,富集在核糖体、氨基酸生物合成和碳代谢3个通路上的差异表达miRNA的靶基因数分别为122、88和82个。 qRT-PCR验证结果表明：在CK和Cd文库间,11个差异表达miRNA及8个靶基因的相对表达量均有显著差异(P<0.05);其中,11个miRNA相对表达量的上调和下调趋势与上述筛选结果一致,并且miRNA相对表达量上调时,其靶基因的相对表达量下调,反之亦然,说明Cd胁迫条件下马蔺根系的miRNA负调控其靶基因的表达,并且这些靶基因主要参与编码转录因子、HD-ZIP蛋白和信号蛋白等过程。     

Functional mapping of the plant small RNA methyltransferase: HEN1 physically interacts with HYL1 and DICER-LIKE 1 proteins

Methylation of 3′-terminal nucleotides of miRNA/miRNA* is part of miRNAs biogenesis in plants but is not found in animals. In Arabidopsis thaliana this reaction is carried out by a multidomain AdoMet-dependent 2′-O-methyltransferase HEN1. Using deletion and structure-guided mutational analysis, we show that the double-stranded RNA-binding domains R¹ and R² of HEN1 make significant but uneven contributions to substrate RNA binding, and map residues in each domain responsible for this function. Using GST pull-down assays and yeast two-hybrid analysis we demonstrate direct HEN1 interactions, mediated by its FK506-binding protein-like domain and R² domain, with the microRNA biogenesis protein HYL1. Furthermore, we find that HEN1 forms a complex with DICER-LIKE 1 (DCL1) ribonuclease, another key protein involved in miRNA biogenesis machinery. In contrast, no direct interaction is detectable between HEN1 and SERRATE. On the basis of these findings, we propose a mechanism of plant miRNA maturation which involves binding of the HEN1 methyltransferase to the DCL1•HYL1•miRNA complex excluding the SERRATE protein.     

MicroRNA调控被子植物花发育的研究进展

MicroRNA（miRNA）是一类由内源基因编码的长度为21～23nt的非编码单链小RNA分子,通过与靶基因的互补位点结合而降解或抑制靶mRNA的翻译,从而在转录后水平上调控基因的活性。miRNA在调控植物发育方面发挥着广泛的作用。从成花诱导到花器官特征属性的形成,miRNA在整个花发育过程均发挥着关键作用。miRl72和miRl56／157参与由营养生长向生殖生长转换的调控,miRl72和miRl69在花发育的早期阶段通过界定靶基因的表达区域而调控花器官的属性,miR319、miRl59、miRl64以及miRl67在花发育的晚期阶段决定细胞的特化。文章综述了miRNA调控被子植物花发育的研究进展,为深入了解miRNA的作用机制奠定基础。