Forage patch use by grazing herbivores in a South African grazing ecosystem

Understanding how different herbivores make forage patch use choices explains how they maintain an adequate nutritional status, which is important for effective conservation management of grazing ecosystems. Using telemetry data, we investigated nonruminant zebra (Equus burchelli) and ruminant red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus subspecies camaa), use of burnt patches in a landscape mosaic of nutrient-poor, old grassland interspersed with young, recently burnt, nutrient-rich grass patches. The Mkambati Nature Reserve landscape on the east coast of South Africa provided large grazers with a challenge in finding and using appropriate patches in which to forage to meet their nutritional requirements. In Mkambati, grassland fires, mostly ignited by poachers, induce regrowth of young nutrient-rich grass, which subsequently attract grazers. We tested if the study animals foraged more in burnt patches than in the unburned grassland and whether burnt patch use was related to the distance to the previously visited burnt patch, burnt patch size, burnt patch age, and distance to areas with high poaching risk using MANOVA. In general, zebra moved faster than red hartebeest, and both species moved faster in unburnt grassland than in burnt patches. Red hartebeest and zebra patch selection were influenced by interpatch distance, patch age, patch size, and poaching risk. A limited set of intrinsic traits, i.e., body mass, digestion strategy, and muzzle width, yielded different patch use rules for the two species. Large ungulates patch use behaviour varied among species and across conditions and was influenced by anthropogenic impacts such as poaching and changed fire regimes. This could potentially affect biodiversity negatively and needs to be factored into management of conservation areas.     

Grassland connectivity explains entomophilous plant species assemblages in an agricultural landscape of the Pampa Region,Argentina

The Pampa grassland of Argentina is one of the most highly threatened biomes in the world. A high proportion of the original grassland cover has been transformed into land for agriculture or degraded. In the southern part of the region, fragmented semi‐natural grasslands over exposed rock still persist and connectivity between them is assumed to be crucial for maintaining viable populations. We quantified overall connectivity of grassland patches in a sector of the Southern Pampa region, and investigated the degree to which landscape connectivity explains entomophilous plant species assemblages in a subset of patches. We characterized each of the 301 patches in the landscape by their degree of intra‐patch and inter‐patch connectivity based on graph theory, and considering threshold dispersal distances from 100 to 1000 m. We surveyed entomophilous plant species in 39 grassland patches and classified the species in three categories (annual herbs, perennial herbs and shrubs) considering their different growth form and longevity. The influence of connectivity variables on entomophilous plant species assemblages variation was explored using Canonical Correspondence Analysis. Although grassland patches were poorly connected at all threshold distances, some of them were found to be critical for global connectivity. Connectivity significantly explained total, annual‐biennial and shrub assemblages for all threshold dispersal distances (6–13% of total variation). Variation in annual species assemblages was associated with intra‐patch and inter‐patch connectivity at short distance (100 m), while variation in shrub species assemblages was explained by intra‐patch and inter‐patch connectivity for distances between 100 m and 1000 m. This study evidenced the low connectivity of the study system, allowed the identification of critical areas for conservation, and provided valuable information to develop management strategies in increasingly human‐dominated landscapes.     

Landscape connectivity and the role of small habitat patches as stepping stones: an assessment of the grassland biome in South America

Connectivity losses lead to a reduction of the amount of habitat resources that can be reached and used by species, and hence to a decline in the ranges and abundance of multiple taxa. Despite the recognized important role of small habitat patches for many species inhabiting fragmented landscapes, their potential contribution as stepping stones for maintaining overall landscape connectivity has received less attention. Using connectivity metrics based on a graph-theoretic approach we (i) quantified the connectivity of grassland patches in a sector of the Pampa region in Argentina, using a range of dispersal distances (from 100 to 10,000 m) representative of the scale of dispersal of different species; (ii) identified the most relevant patches for maintaining overall connectivity; and (iii) studied the importance of small patches (defined for different area thresholds of 5, 20, and 50 ha) as connectivity providers in the landscape. Although grassland patches were in general poorly connected at all distances, some of them were critical for overall connectivity and were found to play different crucial roles in the patch network. The location of small patches in the grassland network allowed them to function as stepping stones, yielding significant connectivity gains for species that move large distances (>5000 m) for the three area thresholds considered. Thus, under the spatial pattern of the studied landscape, species that move long distances would benefit from stepping stones, while less mobile organisms would benefit from, and mostly rely on the largest patches. We recommend that future management activities should (i) aim at preserving the grassland patches with the highest potential as stepping stones to promote landscape-level connectivity; and (ii) pay more attention to the conservation of key small patches, particularly given that usually they are those more vulnerable to land clearing for agriculture.     

How do birds search for breeding areas at the landscape level? Interpatch movements of male ortolan buntings

Animal movements at large spatial scales are of great importance in population ecology, yet little is known due to practical problems following individuals across landscapes. We studied the whole Norwegian population of a small songbird (ortolan bunting, Emberiza hortulana ) occupying habitat patches dispersed over nearly 500 km². Movements of colour-ringed males were monitored during ten years, and extensive long-distance dispersal was recorded. More than half of all cases of breeding dispersal took place within one breeding season, and males moved up to 43 km between singing territories, using 1–22 d. Natal dispersal was usually to a habitat patch close to the natal patch, or within the natal patch if it was large. Breeding dispersal movements were often long-distance, beyond neighbouring patches, and up to 11–19 patches were overflown. Movements of at least 6–9 km across areas of unsuitable habitat occurred regularly. The number of patches visited was low (1–4) even though search costs in terms of time spent moving from one site to another were relatively low (often only a few days even for distances >10 km). Most males seemed to use a threshold tactic when choosing a patch, but returns to previously visited patches were recorded, including some cases of commuting. In conclusion, male ortolan buntings have a surprising ability to move quickly at the landscape level, and this resulted in a high connectivity of patches. We discuss our results in relation to optimal searching strategies, in particular the use of within-breeding season versus post-breeding season search, conspecific attraction and adaptive late arrival of young birds.     

Groupings of life‐history traits are associated with distribution of forest plant species in a fragmented landscape

Questions: 1. Do relationships among forest plant traits correspond to dispersability‐persistence trade‐offs or other inter‐trait correlations found in the literature? 2. Do species groups delineated by trait similarity, differ in occurrence in ancient vs. new forests or isolated vs more continuous forest patches? 3. Are these patterns consistent for different forest types? Location: Central Belgium, near Leuven. Methods: We investigate the distributions of a large set of plant traits and combinations among all forest species occurring in patches with varying forest continuity and isolation. Through calculation of Gower's similarity index and subsequent clustering,‘emergent’ species groups are delineated. Then, the relative occurrence of these different groups in forest patches of different age and size, sustaining different forest types (alluvial vs. Quercion), and having different isolation status is compared through multivariate GLM analysis. Results: Correlations among several life history traits point towards trade‐offs of dispersability and fecundity vs. longevity. We distinguished three species groups: 1= mainly shrubs or climbers with fleshy or wind dispersed fruits and high dispersal potential; 2 = dominated by small, mainly vegetatively reproducing herbs; 3 = with spring flowering herbs with large seeds and mainly unassisted dispersal. Relative occurrence of these groups was significantly affected by forest age, area, isolation and forest type. Separate analyses for alluvial and Quercion forests indicated that the relative importance of these factors may differ, depending on forest type and species group. Both forest continuity and isolation are important in restricting the relative occurrence of forest species in alluvial forests, whatever their group membership. In Quercion forests forest patch area was the primary determinant of relative occurrence of species groups. Conclusions: It is very important to preserve the actual forest area including the spatial setting and the dispersal infrastructure within the landscape. Next, forest connectivity may be restored, but it is inherently a long process.     

Patterns of species richness in dry grassland patches in an agricultural landscape

Eighty-five patches of semi-natural grassland of varying size scattered in a agricultural landscape were investigated for their flora of vascular plants. Relationships between species richness and patch area, spatial isolation and local habitat conditions including heterogeneity were examined. Differences between single species and among groups of species defined by life-history traits were also investigated.
Area was shown to be an important determinant of species richness irrespective of habitat heterogeneity. Isolation in space and habitat heterogeneity also play significant roles. These results are consistent with results from a multitude of studies on fragments of ancient deciduous woodland in northern Europe, They are, however, contradictory to results from previous studies in grasslands within the same region. Seed mass and dispersal syndrome were poor predictors of the degree to which the species were affected by isolation of grassland patches. Seed mass deviation from community median could explain a small percentage of the variation in regional abundance. Logistic regression on species occurrences showed that few species are associated with large patches, and less than half seem to avoid isolated patches.     

Linking landscape history and dispersal traits in grassland plant communities

Dispersal limitation and long-term persistence are known to delay plant species’ responses to habitat fragmentation, but it is still unclear to what extent landscape history may explain the distribution of dispersal traits in present-day plant communities. We used quantitative data on long-distance seed dispersal potential by wind and grazing cattle (epi- and endozoochory), and on persistence (adult plant longevity and seed bank persistence) to quantify the linkages between dispersal and persistence traits in grassland plant communities and current and past landscape configurations. The long-distance dispersal potential of present-day communities was positively associated with the amounts of grassland in the historical (1835, 1938) landscape, and with a long continuity of grazing management—but was not associated with the properties of the current landscape. The study emphasises the role of history as a determinant of the dispersal potential of present-day grassland plant communities. The importance of long-distance dispersal processes has declined in the increasingly fragmented modern landscape, and long-term persistent species are expected to play a more dominant role in grassland communities in the future. However, even within highly fragmented landscapes, long-distance dispersed species may persist locally—delaying the repayment of the extinction debt.     

黑河中游生态用地景观连接性动态变化及距离阈值

景观连接度描述了景观组分在景观格局、过程和功能上的有机联系.本文利用1986、2000和2011年土地覆被数据,基于图论方法,研究了黑河中游生态用地(林地、草地、湿地)景观连接性动态变化,并通过分析不同阈值下景观连接度值的变化揭示了研究区景观的适宜阈值.结果表明: 黑河中游1986—2011年对景观连接度产生重要作用的生态斑块面积呈减少趋势.湿地斑块面积2000—2011年减少幅度较大;草地斑块数量先减少后增加,面积变化不大,但是有斑块破碎化的趋势.不同阈值下景观连接度值的变化验证了距离阈值的正向作用.400～800 m是研究黑河中游物种扩散和生态流运行的适宜距离阈值.选择600 m作为距离阈值时,大型斑块对区域总体景观连接水平影响最为显著,是区域生态系统稳定和健康的关键组成;小型生态斑块虽然占生态斑块总面积的比例不大,但对区域的生态安全格局的维持和改善有较大影响,亦需加强保护与管理.研究结果对干旱区生态系统管理具有重要的借鉴意义.     

How do patch quality and spatial context affect invertebrate communities in a natural moss microlandscape?

Globally, moss associated invertebrates remain poorly studied and it is largely unknown to what extent their diversity is driven by local environmental conditions or the landscape context. Here, we investigated small scale drivers of invertebrate communities in a moss landscape in a temperate forest in Western Europe. By comparing replicate quadrats of 5 different moss species in a continuous moss landscape, we found that mosses differed in invertebrate density and community composition. Although, in general, richness was similar among moss species, some invertebrate taxa were significantly linked to certain moss species. Only moss biomass and not relative moisture content could explain differences in invertebrate densities among moss species. Second, we focused on invertebrate communities associated with the locally common moss species Kindbergia praelonga in isolated moss patches on dead tree trunks to look at effects of patch size, quality, heterogeneity and connectivity on invertebrate communities. Invertebrate richness was higher in patches under closed canopies than under more open canopies, presumably due to the higher input of leaf litter and/or lower evaporation. In addition, increased numbers of other moss species in the same patch seemed to promote invertebrate richness in K. praelonga, possibly due to mass effects. Since invertebrate richness was unaffected by patch size and isolation, dispersal was probably not limiting in this system with patches separated by tens of meters, or stochastic extinctions may be uncommon. Overall, we conclude that invertebrate composition in moss patches may not only depend on local patch conditions, in a particular moss species, but also on the presence of other moss species in the direct vicinity.     

Identifying potential conservation areas in the Cuitzeo Lake basin,Mexico by multitemporal analysis of landscape connectivity

Lake Cuitzeo basin is an important ecological area subjected to strong human pressure on forest covers that are key elements for the long-term support of biodiversity. We studied landscape connectivity changes for the years 1975, 1996, 2000, 2003 and 2008 to identify potential conservation areas in the basin. We modeled potential distributions of the Mexican bobcat (Lynx rufus escuinapae) and the ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) – two terrestrial mammal focal species with contrasting dispersal capacities – and we determined their habitat availability and suitability in the basin. We then identified their optimal habitat patches and produced landscape cumulative resistance maps, estimated least-cost paths (graph theory approach), and elaborated current flow maps (circuit theory approach). For evaluation of landscape connectivity, we applied an integral index of connectivity (IIC) to each study period, and determined individual habitat patch contribution to the overall landscape connectivity. The IIC index had very low values associated with reduced availability of focal species habitat. However, our study showed the conservation importance of the surface of optimal habitat patch areas. The combined application of a graph-based approach and current flow mapping were useful, and complementary both in terms of estimating potential dispersal corridors and identifying high probability dispersal areas. This indicated that landscape connectivity analysis is a useful tool for identification of potential conservation areas and for local landscape planning.     

Environmental and land use determinants of grassland patch diversity in the western and eastern Alps under agro-pastoral abandonment

Agro-pastoral decline in European mountain areas has recently caused changes to traditional landscapes with negative consequences on semi-natural grassland conservation and the associated biodiversity and ecosystem services. In the Italian Alps, grassland patches enclosed in a forest matrix are progressively disappearing. Two alpine valleys (Pesio and Pejo), having similar land-use history, were chosen as representative of management conditions of western and eastern Italian Alps, respectively. This study aims at interpreting the effect of abandonment on grassland patch plant diversity, considering land cover changes of the last 60 years, and assessing the role of ecological, topographic, management and landscape configuration on current grassland species richness. The total area of grassland patches has declined by 54 and 91 % at Pesio and at Pejo, respectively. Actual grassland patch species richness was mostly influenced by ecological factors, such as quantity of light, soil moisture and reaction, then by topographic features, especially slope, and finally by management intensity. Landscape factors exerted a slightly significant effect on plant diversity. In the two valleys, differences on management practices were detected. Even though in the western valley the conservation of several grazing activities contributed to slow down the process of patch reduction, many species-rich grasslands were generally under-grazed. Conversely, in the eastern valley, despite a denser road network, the stronger decline of grassland patch extension was linked to the hay making decline. At the same time, overuse of grassland patches near farms reduced plant species richness. As a conclusion, plant species richness was weakly related to the area of grassland patches and current and historical landscape configuration were of relatively lower importance than ecological, topographic and management factors, when evaluated at patch-level.     

Habitat patch size alters the importance of dispersal for species diversity in an experimental freshwater community

Increased dispersal of individuals among discrete habitat patches should increase the average number of species present in each local habitat patch. However, experimental studies have found variable effects of dispersal on local species richness. Priority effects, predators, and habitat heterogeneity have been proposed as mechanisms that limit the effect of dispersal on species richness. However, the size of a habitat patch could affect how dispersal regulates the number of species able to persist. We investigated whether habitat size interacted with dispersal rate to affect the number of species present in local habitats. We hypothesized that increased dispersal rates would positively affect local species richness more in small habitats than in large habitats, because rare species would be protected from demographic extinction. To test the interaction between dispersal rate and habitat size, we factorially manipulated the size of experimental ponds and dispersal rates, using a model community of freshwater zooplankton. We found that high‐dispersal rates enhanced local species richness in small experimental ponds, but had no effect in large experimental ponds. Our results suggest that there is a trade‐off between patch connectivity (a mediator of dispersal rates) and patch size, providing context for understanding the variability observed in dispersal effects among natural communities, as well as for developing conservation and management plans in an increasingly fragmented world.     

Habitat quality of source patches and connectivity in fragmented landscapes

Because spatial connectivity is critical to dispersal success and persistence of species in highly fragmented landscapes, the way that we envision and measure connectivity is consequential for biodiversity conservation. Connectivity metrics used for predictive modeling of spatial turnover and patch occupancy for metapopulations, such as with Incidence Function Models (IFM), incorporate distances to and sizes of possible source populations. Here, our focus is on whether habitat quality of source patches also is considered in these connectivity metrics. We propose that effective areas (weighted by habitat quality) of source patches should be better surrogates for population size and dispersal potential compared to unadjusted patch areas. Our review of a representative sample of the literature revealed that only 12.5% of studies incorporated habitat quality of source patches into IFM-type connectivity metrics. Quality of source patches generally was not taken into account in studies even if habitat quality of focal patches was included in analyses. We provide an empirical example for a metapopulation of a rare wetland species, the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber alleni), demonstrating that a connectivity metric based on effective areas of source patches better predicts patch colonization and occupancy than a metric that used simple patch areas. The ongoing integration of landscape ecology and metapopulation dynamics could be hastened by incorporating habitat quality of source patches into spatial connectivity metrics applied to species conservation in fragmented landscapes.     

Between‐patch natal dispersal declines with increasing natal patch size and distance to other patches in the endangered Southern Dunlin Calidris alpina schinzii

Natal dispersal has profound consequences for populations through the movement of individuals and genes. Habitat fragmentation reduces structural connectivity by decreasing patch size and increasing isolation, but understanding of how this impacts dispersal and the functional connectivity of landscapes is limited because many studies are constrained by the size of the study areas or sample sizes to accurately capture natal dispersal. We quantified natal dispersal probability and natal dispersal distances in a small migratory shorebird, the Southern Dunlin Calidris alpina schinzii, with data from two extensively monitored endangered metapopulations breeding in Sweden and Finland. In both metapopulations philopatry was strong, with individuals returning to or close to their natal patches more often than expected by chance, consistent with the patchy distribution of their breeding habitat. Dispersal probabilities were lower and dispersal distances were shorter in Sweden. These results provide a plausible explanation for the observed inbreeding and population decline of the Swedish population. The differences between Sweden and Finland were explained by patch‐specific differences. Between‐patch dispersal decreased with increasing natal patch size and distance to other patches. Our results suggest that reduced connectivity reduces movements of the philopatric Dunlin, making it vulnerable to the effects of inbreeding. Increasing connectivity between patches should thus be one of the main goals when planning future management. This may be facilitated by creating a network of suitably sized patches (20–100 ha), no more than 20 km apart from each other, from existing active patches that may work as stepping stones for movement, and by increasing nest success and pre‐fledging survival in small patches.     

Landscape connectivity of the grassland biome in Mpumalanga,South Africa

The South African grassland biome is one of the most threatened biomes in South Africa. Approximately 45% of the grassland biome area is transformed, degraded or severely invaded by alien plants and the remaining natural areas are highly fragmented. In this fragmented landscape, the connectivity between habitat patches is very important to maintain viable populations. In this study we aimed to quantify connectivity of the grassland biome in Mpumalanga using graph theory in order to identify conservation priorities and to direct conservation efforts. Graph theory‐based connectivity indices have the ability to combine spatially explicit habitat data with species specific dispersal data and can quantify structural and functional connectivity over large landscapes. We used these indices to quantify the overall connectivity of the study area, to determine the influence of abandoned croplands on overall connectivity, and to identify the habitat patches and vegetation types most in need of maintaining overall connectivity. Natural areas were identified using 2008 land cover data for Mpumalanga. Connectivity within the grassland biome of Mpumalanga was analysed for grassland species with dispersal distances ranging from 50 to 1000 m. The grassland habitat patches were mostly well connected, with 99.6% of the total habitat area connected in a single component at a threshold distance of 1000 m. The inclusion of abandoned croplands resulted in a 33% increase in connectivity at a threshold distance of 500 m. The habitat patches most important for maintaining overall connectivity were the large patches of continuous habitat in the upper and lower centres of the study area and the most important vegetation types were the Wakkerstroom Montane Grassland and the Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands. These results can be used to inform management decisions and reserve design to improve and maintain connectivity in this biome.     

近40年野骆驼历史分布区土地利用变化及生境破碎化驱动因素

野骆驼是中亚地区重要的迁徙物种,历史上完整、连续的野骆驼栖息地目前已成为孤岛状。为了解野骆驼历史分布区受人类活动的影响,明确造成其历史分布区破碎化的驱动因素,研究选取土地利用和道路两个因素,通过对近40年来的野骆驼历史分布区土地利用变化和动态度分析,以及道路密度和影响域计算,定量评估野骆驼历史分布区景观格局,以期为野骆驼栖息地整体连通性的改善,避免或缓解线性基础设施建设对野骆驼栖息地的影响提供科学的建议。结果表明：（1）近40年,野骆驼历史分布区内以未利用土地和草地为主体的格局保持不变,尤其是沙地、戈壁为主的未利用土地始终占比很大（>80%）;（2）野骆驼历史分布区范围内道路密度为0.0410 km/km²,但道路的阻隔作用明显,野骆驼当前分布区呈3个孤岛的格局与道路隔离形成的景观格局是一致的;（3）野骆驼历史分布区斑块数为914个,西部历史分布区斑块数为78个,远低于中部的373个和东部的463个,斑块数和平均斑块面积两个景观指数表明西部的栖息地破碎化程度比中部和东部栖息地要低;（4）从最大斑块指数来看,残存的大面积、无路区斑块是当前野骆驼种群得以存续的庇护所。根据当前的景观格局和破碎化状况,西部分布区和中部分布区间通过实施科学的栖息地连通和廊道建设规划,将极有可能实现两个孤立种群的交流连通,中部分布区和东部分布区间种群已基本无连通的可能。建议将更多的保护资源和努力投入到西部和中部分布区种群的维持和连通。在未来的道路规划建设和布局中,要考虑道路规划和建设对野骆驼最小生境面积的影响,并且要将影响评估尺度放大到整个野骆驼历史分布区的尺度上考虑道路的阻隔作用。     

Patch occupancy of North American mammals: is patchiness in the eye of the beholder?

Aim Intraspecific variation in patch occupancy often is related to physical features of a landscape, such as the amount and distribution of habitat. However, communities occupying patchy environments typically exhibit non‐random distributions in which local assemblages of species‐poor patches are nested subsets of assemblages occupying more species‐rich patches. Nestedness of local communities implies interspecific differences in sensitivity to patchiness. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain interspecific variation in responses to patchiness within a community, including differences in (1) colonization ability, (2) extinction proneness, (3) tolerance to disturbance, (4) sociality and (5) level of adaptation to prevailing environmental conditions. We used data on North American mammals to compare the performance of these ‘ecological’ hypotheses and the ‘physical landscape’ hypothesis. We then compared the best of these models against models that scaled landscape structure to ecologically relevant attributes of individual species. Location North America. Methods We analysed data on prevalence (i.e. proportion of patches occupied in a network of patches) and occupancy for 137 species of non‐volant mammals and twenty networks consisting of four to seventy‐five patches. Insular and terrestrial networks exhibited significantly different mean levels of prevalence and occupancy and thus were analysed separately. Indicator variables at ordinal and family levels were included in models to correct for effects caused by phylogeny. Akaike's information criterion was used in conjunction with ordinary least squares and logistic regression to compare hypotheses. Results A patch network's physical structure, indexed using patch area and isolation, received the greatest support among models predicting the prevalence of species on insular networks. Niche breadth (diet and habitat) received the greatest support for predicting prevalence of species occupying terrestrial networks. For both insular and terrestrial systems, physical features (patch area and isolation) received greater support than any of the ecological hypotheses for predicting species occupancy of individual patches. For terrestrial systems, scaling patch area by its suitability to a focal species and by individual area requirements of the species, and scaling patch isolation by species‐specific dispersal ability and niche breadth, resulted in models of patch occupancy that were superior to models relying solely on physical landscape features. For all selected models, unexplained levels of variation were high. Main conclusions Stochasticity dominated the systems we studied, indicating that random events are probably quite important in shaping local communities. With respect to deterministic factors, our results suggest that forces affecting species prevalence and occupancy may differ between insular and terrestrial systems. Physical features of insular systems appeared to swamp ecological differences among species in determining prevalence and occupancy, whereas species with broad niches were disproportionately represented in terrestrial networks. We hypothesize that differential extinction over long time periods in highly variable networks has driven nestedness of mammalian communities on islands, whereas differential colonization over shorter time‐scales in more homogeneous networks probably governed the local structure of terrestrial communities. Our results also demonstrate that integration of a species' ecological traits with physical features of a patch network is superior to reliance on either factor separately when attempting to predict the species' probability of patch occupancy in terrestrial systems.     

Landscape-scale connectivity and fragment size determine species composition of grassland fragments

As a consequence of agricultural intensification and habitat fragmentation since the mid-20th century, biological diversity has declined considerably throughout the world, particularly in Europe. We assessed how habitat and landscape-scale heterogeneity, such as variation in fragment size (small vs. large) and landscape configuration (measured as connectivity index), affect plant and arthropod diversity. We focused on arthropods with different feeding behaviour and mobility, spiders (predators, moderate dispersal), true bugs (mainly herbivores and omnivores with moderate dispersal), wild bees (pollinators with good dispersal abilities), and wasps (pollinators, omnivores with good dispersal abilities). We studied 60 dry grassland fragments in the same region (Hungarian Great Plain); 30 fragments were represented by the grassland component of forest-steppe stands, and 30 were situated on burial mounds (kurgans). Forest-steppes are mosaics of dry grasslands with small forests in a matrix of plantation forests. Kurgans are ancient burial mounds with moderately disturbed grasslands surrounded by agricultural fields. The size of fragments ranged between 0.16–6.88 ha (small: 0.16–0.48 ha, large: 0.93–6.88 ha) for forest-steppes and 0.01–0.44 ha (small: 0.01–0.10 ha and large: 0.20–0.44 ha) for kurgans. Fragments also represented an isolation gradient from almost cleared and homogenous landscapes, to landscapes with relatively high compositional heterogeneity. Fragment size, connectivity, and their interaction affected specialist and generalist species abundances of forest-steppes and kurgans. Large fragments had higher species richness of ground-dwelling spiders, and the effect of connectivity was more strongly positive for specialist arthropods and more strongly negative for generalists in large than in small fragments. However, we also found a strong positive impact of connectivity for generalist plants in small kurgans in contrast to larger ones. We conclude that besides the well-known effect of enhancing habitat quality, increasing connectivity between fragments by restoring natural and semi-natural habitat patches would help to maintain grassland biodiversity.     

Adaptive Patch Searching Strategies in Fragmented Landscapes

The search strategies dispersers employ to search for new habitat patches affect individuals’ search success and subsequently landscape connectivity and metapopulation viability. Some evidence indicates that individuals within the same species may display a variety of behavioural patch searching strategies rather than one species-specific strategy. This may result from landscape heterogeneity. We modelled the evolution of individual patch searching strategies in different landscapes. Specifically, we analysed whether evolution can favour different, co-existing, behavioural search strategies within one population and to what extent this coexistence of multiple strategies was dependent on landscape configuration. Using an individual-based simulation model, we studied the evolution of patch searching strategies in three different landscape configurations: uniform, random and clumped. We found that landscape configuration strongly influenced the evolved search strategy. In uniform landscapes, one fixed search strategy evolved for the entire spatially structured population, while in random and clumped landscapes, a set of different search strategies emerged. The coexistence of several search strategies also strongly depended on the dispersal mortality. We show that our result can affect landscape connectivity and metapopulation dynamics. Co-ordinating editor: N. Yamamura     

Assessing multi-taxa sensitivity to the human footprint,habitat fragmentation and loss by exploring alternative scenarios of dispersal ability and population size: a simulation approach

Quantifying the effects of landscape change on population connectivity is compounded by uncertainties about population size and distribution and a limited understanding of dispersal ability for most species. In addition, the effects of anthropogenic landscape change and sensitivity to regional climatic conditions interact to strongly affect habitat fragmentation and loss. To further develop conservation theory and to understand the interplay between all of these factors, we simulated habitat fragmentation and loss across the Western United States for several hypothetical species associated with four biome types, and a range of habitat requirements and dispersal abilities. We found dispersal ability and population size of the focal species to be equally sensitive to habitat extent, while dispersal ability is more sensitive to habitat fragmentation. There were also strong critical threshold effects where habitat connectivity decreased disproportionately to decreases in life-history traits making these species near these thresholds more sensitive to changes in habitat loss and fragmentation. Overall, grassland and forest associated species are also most at risk from habitat loss and fragmentation driven by human related land-use. These two largest biome types were most sensitive at large contiguous patch sizes which is often considered most important for metapopulation viability and biodiversity conservation. Hypothetical simulation studies such as this can be of great value to scientists in further conceptualizing and developing conservation theory, and evaluating spatially-explicit scenarios of habitat connectivity. Our results are available for download in a web-based interactive mapping prototype useful for accessing the results of this study.