中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度的地理格局及其与环境因子的关系

物种丰富度的大尺度地理格局及其成因是宏观生态学和生物地理学的中心议题之一。本文利用中国陆栖哺乳动物分布数据, 结合高分辨率的气候、地形、植被等环境信息, 探讨了中国陆栖哺乳动物及主要类群的物种丰富度格局及其影响因素。结果显示, 中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度具有显著的纬度梯度格局, 总体上呈现出由低纬度向高纬度逐渐减少的趋势, 并与宏观地形具有良好的对应关系; 其中, 亚热带、热带西部山区的物种丰富度最高, 而东部平原地区、西北干旱区和青藏高原腹地则是丰富度的低值区。各主要类群的物种丰富度格局既有相似性, 又存在差异。最优线性模型的分析结果显示, 由归一化植被指数(NDVI)、生态系统类型数和气温年较差构成的回归模型对哺乳动物物种丰富度格局的解释率最高, 其中NDVI对模型解释率的贡献最大, 这表明中国陆栖哺乳动物物种丰富度的地理分异受多种环境因素的共同影响, 其中植被生产力起主导作用。各主要类群的最优线性模型显示, 影响物种丰富度格局的主要环境因子因类群而异, 这可能反映了各类群进化历史及生理适应的差异。     

陆栖哺乳动物的地理隔离研究进展

地理隔离是驱动物种分布格局形成的主要因素之一。本文回顾和总结了近几十年来地理隔离影响陆栖哺乳动物空间分布的研究成果, 从自然因素和人为因素两方面就地理隔离对物种分布的影响研究进展进行了综述。自然因素包括山脉、水体、沙漠和其他极端环境、气候变化等, 这些要素通常是在陆栖哺乳动物的缓慢演化进程中发挥作用; 人为因素侧重于因人类活动参与导致的物种分布变化, 包括景观结构变化、交通设施建设等, 在短短几百年甚至几十年内, 可以使物种分布特征发生显著变化。地理隔离对陆栖哺乳动物分布的作用是普遍而相对的, 长期存在且处于动态变化中。多种地理隔离因素之间的尺度效应不同, 哺乳动物在适应地理隔离的过程中表现出了生物个体和种群的响应过程。最后, 建议今后重点开展以下几方面的研究: (1)基于历史动物地理学与生态动物地理学, 深入研究地理隔离与动物地理边界形成的原因; (2)微观尺度下, 借助分子生物学和各种组学技术探讨地理隔离对物种遗传和适应机制的影响; (3)借鉴其他动物类群的研究经验, 加强对我国陆生哺乳动物的跟踪监测; (4)以数据驱动为导向, 将动物地理学与数据科学相结合, 以更好地分析动物分布的变迁史。     

黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物丰富度格局及其影响因子

生物多样性的大尺度空间分布格局及其形成机制一直是生态学和生物地理学的核心内容。黄河流域是我国重要的生态屏障, 明确该区域动植物多样性分布格局及其影响因素, 对我国黄河流域生态保护和高质量发展具有重要意义。本研究通过收集黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物分布数据, 结合气候、环境异质性和人类活动等信息, 探讨了黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物物种丰富度格局及其主要影响因素。结果表明, 黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物物种丰富度在区域尺度具有相似的分布格局: 南部山地动植物物种丰富度最高, 而东部高寒区和北部干旱区物种丰富度最低。回归树模型表明, 冠层高度范围和净初级生产力范围分别是黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物物种丰富度最重要的预测因子; 当移除空间自相关影响后, 环境异质性和气候因子依然对区域尺度的动植物物种丰富度具有较高且相似的解释度。表明环境异质性和气候共同决定了黄河流域被子植物和陆栖脊椎动物物种丰富度格局, 而人类使用土地面积并不是影响黄河流域动植物物种丰富度格局的主要因子。因此, 在未来的研究中若针对不同区域筛选出更精准的环境驱动因子或选用更多不同类别的环境异质性因子进行分析, 将有助于更深入理解物种多样性格局的成因。     

黄土高原归一化植被指数与自然环境因子的空间关联性——基于地理探测器

植被对改善黄土高原脆弱的生态环境有着关键作用,系统研究黄土高原归一化植被指数(NDVI)空间分布和环境因子的空间关联性,可为新时代黄土高原植被高质量建设提供科学依据。以黄土高原2000-2017年年均植被NDVI为研究对象,选取气候要素、地形因素、土壤类型和植被类型等自然环境因子,运用GIS和地理探测器技术手段,在剔除土地利用类型发生变化栅格的基础上,研究黄土高原年均NDVI与环境因子的空间关联性,结果表明:2000-2017年黄土高原年均NDVI值在0.016-0.72之间,呈地带性分布,由西北部向东南部逐渐升高,大于0.3的区域占50.23%;2000-2017年黄土高原年均植被NDVI分布具有空间异质性,且在不同植被区、地貌区、土壤区和气候区中,NDVI空间分布的主要环境驱动因子具有差异性。年均降雨量对NDVI空间分布具有强解释力,是黄土高原85.20%的区域植被生长的主要制约因子;约12.01%的区域主要受土壤类型影响,为中等解释力,其余区域的植被生长主要受年均气温,日照时数或海拔影响。建议综合考虑不同环境条件下植被NDVI的空间分布与环境影响因子的空间关联性,明确不同区域中植被NDVI的环境制约因子,以制约因子定植,在防止土壤干燥化、贫瘠化的前提下,提高植被覆盖率和生物多样性,以期促进黄土高原植被建设高质量发展。     

砒砂岩区植被覆盖度环境驱动因子量化分析——基于地理探测器

砒砂岩区地形破碎,生态环境恶劣,降水量少且以暴雨为主,研究该区植被覆盖变化及环境驱动因子作用机制对区域植被建设具有重要的理论意义。基于1999—2018年的NDVI数据分析了砒砂岩区近20年植被覆盖度时空变化特征,利用了地理探测器方法量化分析了不同环境因子对植被覆盖度的影响。结果表明：1)近20年砒砂岩区平均植被覆盖度为42.3%,时间尺度上1999—2018年区域植被覆盖度呈增加趋势,平均上升幅度为0.086/10 a,空间尺度上植被覆盖度呈现从东南向西北递减的空间分布特征;2)近20年区域植被覆盖整体得到改善要比退化的区域面积大,45.5%的区域面积植被覆盖度极显著增加,主要分布在砒砂岩区东部区域,该区植被覆盖度未来变化趋势将以持续性改善为主,但仍有约41.6%的植被将由改善向退化方向变化;3)降水、土壤水分和气温是影响砒砂岩区植被覆盖空间分布的主导环境因子,且降水同其他环境因子的交互作用对植被覆盖影响最大。     

中国裸子植物的物种多样性格局及其影响因子

物种多样性的大尺度空间格局是宏观生态学和生物地理学研究的核心问题之一。本文利用中国裸子植物分布数据, 结合气候、地形等环境信息, 分析了中国裸子植物物种多样性的大尺度格局及其影响因素, 比较了不同类群之间物种多样性格局和主导因子的差异, 并探讨了裸子植物在植物区系中所占比重的地理格局。结果表明, 中国裸子植物的物种多样性总体上呈现南高北低的趋势, 物种多样性在横断山区最高。在裸子植物的三个主要类群中, 松柏亚纲的物种多样性格局与整体相似, 买麻藤亚纲的多样性高值区则出现在中国西北部的干旱地区, 苏铁亚纲的分布区较为狭窄, 主要集中在南方地区。线性回归分析结果表明, 空间异质性和降水因子对中国裸子植物多样性格局的解释率最高, 末次冰期以来的气温变化、海拔高差和能量因子次之。这表明中国裸子植物物种多样性的格局受到了多种因素的影响, 其中空间异质性和降水因子影响最大。进一步分析发现, 物种多样性格局的主导因子在不同类群之间具有显著差异, 这可能反映了这些类群的进化历史以及生理适应的差异。裸子植物与被子植物的比例具有明显的空间格局: 在东部、南部气候环境优越的地区, 裸子植物与被子植物的比例低于0.06; 而在西部、北部等气候环境比较恶劣的地区, 裸子植物的比例则显著上升。回归分析表明, 能量和水分因子显著影响了裸子植物与被子植物的比例。随着能量的降低和降水的减少, 裸子植物与被子植物的比例会显著升高, 这可能是由于被子植物在温暖湿润地区具有较强竞争优势, 但裸子植物对极端环境具有更好的适应。     

宏生态尺度上景观破碎化对物种丰富度的影响

生物多样性的地理格局及其形成机制是宏生态学与生物地理学的研究热点。大量研究表明,景观尺度上的生境破碎化对物种多样性的分布格局具有重要作用,但目前尚不清楚这种作用是否足以在宏生态尺度上对生物多样性地理格局产生显著影响。利用中国大陆鸟类和哺乳动物的物种分布数据,在100 km×100 km网格的基础上生成了这两个类群生物的物种丰富度地理格局,进一步利用普通最小二乘法模型和空间自回归模型研究了物种丰富度与气候、生境异质性、景观破碎化的相关关系。结果表明,景观破碎化因子与鸟类和哺乳动物的物种丰富度都具有显著的关联关系,其方差贡献率可达约30%—50%(非空间模型)和60%—80%(空间模型),略低于或接近于气候和生境异质性因子。方差分解结果显示,景观破碎化因子与气候和生境异质性因子的方差贡献率的重叠部分达20%—40%。相对鸟类而言,景观破碎化对哺乳动物物种丰富度的地理格局具有更高的解释率。     

基于生态系统服务的青海湖流域生态风险评估及其空间异质性影响因素分析

青海湖流域是我国西北部的"气候调节器"和"空气加湿器",其生态风险管控对青藏高原乃至我国西部的生态保护和可持续发展都有着重要意义。基于InVEST模型对青海湖流域2005年、2010年、2015年、2020年产水量、土壤保持、生境质量和碳储存4项生态系统服务进行定量评估,借助熵权-TOPSIS法,以生态系统服务的相对损失量来构建区域生态风险指数,并运用地理探测器和地理加权回归模型分析自然-社会要素对青海湖流域生态风险空间异质性的影响。结果表明:(1)2005-2020年青海湖流域产水量、土壤保持、生境质量和碳储存均呈现波动增加的趋势,增幅分别为10.17%、18.36%、9.84%、3.47%,各项生态系统服务的高值区分布于河流上游的河源区和植被覆盖率高的林地区域;(2)2005-2020年青海湖流域生态风险较高,但呈现波动降低的趋势。高风险区主要位于湖区、环湖区、布哈河河谷以及流域西北部;(3)青海湖流域生态风险的空间格局受地形及高程因子主导,但人为干扰度的影响力呈逐年上升趋势。驱动因子交互作用的解释力显著高于单因子;(4)主要驱动因子对研究区生态风险的作用方向及强度存在明显的空间分异特征,坡度呈正相关,年平均气温呈负相关,归一化植被指数(NDVI)和人为干扰度呈现出正负两种效应,但以正向效应为主。研究结果对青海湖流域生态风险管控和高原生态环境保护有一定借鉴意义。     

桂西南北热带喀斯特季节性雨林土壤钾、钙、镁空间分布特征及其影响因素

矿质元素是土壤养分的重要组分,关系着森林生态系统的群落组成和生物地球化学循环。喀斯特局域尺度内地形异质性较高,目前尚缺乏地形等非生物因子和生物因子如何影响喀斯特地区土壤矿质元素空间分布方面的研究。本文在弄岗北热带喀斯特季节性雨林15 ha森林动态监测样地中沿海拔梯度设立的100个凋落物收集器所在位点进行土壤取样,对样品中的K、Ca、Mg 3种矿质元素含量进行测定,并基于空间回归模型和变差分解等方法对喀斯特季节性雨林中土壤K、Ca、Mg与生态因子之间的关联进行定量分析,探讨非生物因子和生物因子与其空间分布特征的内在关联,以期为北热带喀斯特生物地球化学循环研究和脆弱喀斯特生态系统保护提供科学依据。结果表明,研究区内土壤K、Ca、Mg均存在空间自相关性, Ca与海拔和凹凸度显著正相关,主要聚集在山脊区域; K与地形湿润度指数显著正相关,主要在洼地聚集; Mg在中坡位表现出聚集特征。变差分解显示生态因子对土壤K、Ca、Mg空间分布的驱动作用强于空间结构,单个生态因子中海拔的解释度最高,并且非生物因子的解释度总体上高于生物因子,生物因子中物种丰富度解释度最高,同时Mg的聚集伴随着较高的物种丰富度...     

气候和土地利用与空间结构在影响大熊猫同域分布大中型哺乳动物物种丰富度中的相对作用

气候因子和土地利用因子是影响生物多样性分布格局的两个主要驱动因素。然而,当前关于气候因子和土地利用因子对生物多样性影响的研究主要集中在物种层面上,在群落水平上对生物多样性的影响依然知之甚少。本研究以大熊猫同域分布大中型哺乳动物为研究对象,结合物种丰富度数据、气候数据、土地利用数据以及经纬度数据,构建基于不同变量组合的多元线性模型,并通过模型拟合优度比较和方差分解等方法,探讨气候因子、土地利用因子和空间结构在影响大熊猫同域分布大中型哺乳动物物种丰富度中的相对作用。结果表明:(1)四川省大熊猫分布的五大山系内的大中型哺乳动物在属数和物种数方面差异较大。其中岷山山系的属数和物种数最高,分别为25属和28种,凉山山系的属数和物种数最低,分别为19属和20种,五大山系内排名前五的优势种分别为大熊猫、羚牛、野猪、中华斑羚、中华鬣羚;(2)大熊猫同域分布大中型哺乳动物物种丰富度在空间分布上差异较大。所有10 km×10 km栅格内的物种数在1～14之间,平均值为6.199±3.475;(3)完全模型(包含所有气候变量、土地利用变量和空间结构变量的模型,CLS)的拟合优度要好于其它6类模型,且包含土地...     

Global bioregions of reptiles confirm the consistency of bioregionalization processes across vertebrate clades

Aim

The identification of biogeographical zones has been fundamental in broadscale biodiversity analyses over the last 150 years. If processes underlying bioregionalization, such as climatic differences, tectonics and physical barriers, are consistent across vertebrate clades, we expect that groups with more similar ecological characteristics would show more similar bioregions. Lack of data has so far hampered the delineation of global bioregions for reptiles. Therefore, we integrated comprehensive geographic distribution and phylogenetic data of lepidosaurian reptiles to delineate global reptile bioregions, compare determinants of biogeographical boundaries across terrestrial vertebrates and test whether clades showing similar responses to environmental factors also show more similar bioregions.

Location

Global.

Time Period

Present.

Major Taxa Studied

Reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals.

Methods

For reptiles, we used phylogenetic beta diversity to quantify changes in community composition, and hierarchical clustering to identify biogeographic ‘realms’ and ‘regions’. Then, we assessed the determinants of biogeographical boundaries using spatially explicit regression models, testing the effect of climatic factors, physical barriers and tectonics. Bioregions of reptiles were compared to those of other vertebrate clades by testing the overall similarity of the spatial structure of bioregions, and the match of the position of biogeographical boundaries.

Results

For reptiles, we identified 24 evolutionarily unique regions, nested within 14 realms. Biogeographical boundaries of reptiles were related to both climatic factors and past tectonic movements. Bioregions were very consistent across vertebrate clades. Bioregions of reptiles and mammals showed the highest similarity, followed by reptiles/birds and mammals/birds while amphibian bioregions were less similar to those of the other clades.

Main Conclusions

The overall high similarity among bioregions suggests that bioregionalization was affected by similar underlying processes across terrestrial vertebrates. Nevertheless, clades with different eco-physiological characteristics respond somewhat differently to the same environmental factors, resulting in similar but not identical regionalizations across vertebrate clades.     

Integrating a global agro-climatic classification with bioregional boundaries in Australia

Aim Stratification of major differences in the biophysical features of landscapes at the continental scale is necessary to collectively assess local observations of landscape response to management actions for consistency and difference. Such a stratification is an important step in the development of generalizations concerning how landscapes respond to different management regimes. As part of the development of a comparative framework for this purpose, we propose a climate classification adapted from an existing broad scale global agro‐climatic classification, which is closely aligned with natural vegetation formations and common land uses across Australia. Location The project considered landscapes across the continent of Australia. Methods The global agro‐climatic classification was adapted by using elevation‐dependent thin plate smoothing splines to clarify the spatial extents of the 18 global classes found in Australia. The clarified class boundaries were interpolated from known classes at 822 points across Australia. These classes were then aligned with the existing bioregional classification, Interim Biogeographic Regionalization for Australia IBRA 5.1. Results The aligned climate classes reflect major patterns in plant growth temperature and moisture indices and seasonality. These in turn reflect broad differences in cropping and other land use characteristics. Fifty‐two of the 85 bioregions were classified entirely into one of the 18 agro‐climatic classes. The remaining bioregions were classified according to sub‐bioregional boundaries. A small number of these sub‐bioregions were split to better reflect agro‐climatic boundaries. Main conclusions The agro‐climatic classification provided an explicit global context for the analysis. The topographic dependence of the revised climate class boundaries clarified the spatial extents of poorly sampled highland classes and facilitated the alignment of these classes with the bioregional classification. This also made the classification amenable to explicit application. The bioregional and subregional boundaries reflect discontinuities in biophysical features. These permit the integrated classification to reflect major potential differences in landscape function and response to management. The refined agro‐climatic classification and its integration with the IBRA bioregions are both available for general use and assessment.     

Improving bioregional frameworks for conservation by including mammal distributions

Large identifiable landscape units, such as ecoregions, are used to prioritize global and continental conservation efforts, particularly where biodiversity knowledge is inadequate. Setting biodiversity representation targets using coarse large‐scale biogeographic boundaries, can be inefficient and under‐representative. Even when using fine‐scale biodiversity data, representation deficiencies can occur through misalignment of target distributions with such prioritization frameworks. While this pattern has been recognized, quantitative approaches highlighting misalignments have been lacking, particularly for assemblages of mammal species. We tested the efficacy of Australia's bioregions as a spatial prioritization framework for representing mammal species, within protected areas, in New South Wales. We produced an approach based on mammal assemblages and assessed its performance in representing mammal distributions. Substantial spatial misalignment between New South Wales's bioregions and mammal assemblages was revealed, reflecting deficiencies in the representation of more than half of identified mammal assemblages. Using a systematic approach driven by fine‐scale mammalian data, we compared the efficacy of these two frameworks in securing mammalian representation within protected areas. Of the 61 species, 38 were better represented by the mammalian framework, with remaining species only marginally better represented when guided by bioregions. Overall, the rate at which mammal species were incorporated into the protected area network was higher (5.1% ± 0.6 sd) when guided by mammal assemblages. Guided by bioregions, systematic conservation planning of protected areas may be constrained in realizing its full potential in securing representation for all of Australia's biodiversity. Adapting the boundaries of prioritization frameworks by incorporating amassed information from a broad range of taxa should be of conservation significance.     

Conservation biogeography of the Antarctic

Aim

To present a synthesis of past biogeographic analyses and a new approach based on spatially explicit biodiversity information for the Antarctic region to identify biologically distinct areas in need of representation in a protected area network.

Location

Antarctica and the sub‐Antarctic.

Methods

We reviewed and summarized published biogeographic studies of the Antarctic. We then developed a biogeographic classification for terrestrial conservation planning in Antarctica by combining the most comprehensive source of Antarctic biodiversity data available with three spatial frameworks: (1) a 200‐km grid, (2) a set of areas based on physical parameters known as the environmental domains of Antarctica and (3) expert‐defined bioregions. We used these frameworks, or combinations thereof, together with multivariate techniques to identify biologically distinct areas.

Results

Early studies of continental Antarctica typically described broad bioregions, with the Antarctic Peninsula usually identified as biologically distinct from continental Antarctica; later studies suggested a more complex biogeography. Increasing complexity also characterizes the sub‐Antarctic and marine realms, with differences among studies often attributable to the focal taxa. Using the most comprehensive terrestrial data available and by combining the groups formed by the environmental domains and expert‐defined bioregions, we were able to identify 15 biologically distinct, ice‐free, Antarctic Conservation Biogeographic Regions (ACBRs), encompassing the continent and close lying islands.

Main conclusions

Ice‐free terrestrial Antarctica comprises several distinct bioregions that are not fully represented in the current Antarctic Specially Protected Area network. Biosecurity measures between these ACBRs should also be developed to prevent biotic homogenization in the region.     

Fine‐scale quantification of floral and faunal breaks and their geographic correlates,with an example from south‐eastern Australia

Aim We introduce a method to quantify shared breaks in aggregate biotic distributions and their relationships to geographic variables. The method is based on quantification of distributional taxic and abiotic data that can be applied over multiple spatial scales. We aim to show biogeographic breaks and varying transition zones at a fine level of detail (5‐km resolution) and develop an approach to assess existing bioregionalization schemes. Location Global applicability, using an example from New South Wales in south‐eastern Australia. Methods Moving window analyses, rotated in 15° increments through 360°, are used to assess the degree of anisotropic spatial turnover between sets of gridded cells containing georeferenced species observations. Patterns of biotic turnover are compared with equivalent analyses for elevation and lithology. Identified breaks are assessed against an existing bioregionalization scheme (Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia, IBRA). Results There was fine‐scale concordance between turnover patterns and several IBRA bioregions. Breaks in turnover of flora and fauna corresponded with the boundaries of the Hunter Valley and Sydney Basin regions, particularly the boundary between the Brigalow Belt South and Sydney Basin. Low‐turnover zones were quantified; prominent examples are the Sydney Cataract and Wyong bioregions. Turnover along many boundaries was gradational, confirming that mapped breaks are not abrupt. A previously unidentified break was identified in the South East Corner bioregion. Spatial turnover patterns were similar between biota and were reflected in mean correlation coefficients between turnover in each group: mammals–reptiles (r = 0.70, P << 0.01); mammals–flora (r = 0.56, P << 0.01); and reptiles–flora (r = 0.51, P << 0.01). Generally, patterns of abiotic turnover reflected biotic turnover, although mean turnover correlations were weaker than between biota. Main conclusions Using this method we were able to characterize taxic breaks and overlaps in detail and at a spatially fine resolution. For our study region, we confirm the overall integrity of the IBRA framework, but suggest that it may benefit from revision in some respects.     

Niche evolution in Australian terrestrial mammals? Clarifying scale-dependencies in phylogenetic and functional drivers of co-occurrence

Interactive forces between competition and habitat filtering drive many biogeographic patterns over evolutionary time scales. However, the responsiveness of assemblages to these two forces is highly influenced by spatial scale, forming complex patterns of niche separation. We explored these spatial dependencies by quantifying the influence of phylogeny and functional traits in shaping present day native terrestrial mammal assemblages at multiple scales, principally by identifying the spatial scales at which niche evolution operates. We modelled the distribution of 53 native terrestrial mammal species across New South Wales, Australia. Using predicted distributions, we estimated the range overlap between each pair of species at increasing grain sizes (~0.8, 5.1, 20, 81, 506, 2,025, 8,100 km²). We employed a decision tree to identify how interactions among functional traits and phylogenetic relatedness translated to levels of sympatry at increasing spatial scales. We found that Australian terrestrial mammals displayed phylogenetic over-dispersion that was inversely related to spatial scale, suggesting that ecological processes were more influential than biogeographic sympatry patterns in defining assemblages of species. While the contribution of phylogenetic relatedness to patterns of co-occurrence decreased as spatial scale increased, the reverse was true for habitat preferences. At the same time, functional traits also operated at different scales, as dietary preferences dominated at local spatial scales (<10 km²) while body mass has a stronger effect at larger spatial scales. Our findings show that ecological and evolutionary processes operate at different scales and that Australian terrestrial mammals diverged slower along their micro-scale niche compared to their macro-scale niche. By combining phylogenetic and niche methods through the modelling of species distributions, we assessed whether specific traits were related to a particular niche. More importantly, conducting multi-scale spatial analysis avoids categorical assignment of traits-to-niches, providing a clearer relationship between traits and a species ecological niche and a more precise scaling for the axes of niche evolution.     

Unveiling the environmental drivers of intraspecific body size variation in terrestrial vertebrates

Aim

Whether intraspecific spatial patterns in body size are generalizable across species remains contentious, as well as the mechanisms underlying these patterns. Here we test several hypotheses explaining within-species body size variation in terrestrial vertebrates including the heat balance, seasonality, resource availability and water conservation hypotheses for ectotherms, and the heat conservation, heat dissipation, starvation resistance and resource availability hypotheses for endotherms.

Location

Global.

Time period

1970–2016.

Major taxa studied

Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Methods

We collected 235,905 body size records for 2,229 species (amphibians = 36; reptiles = 81; birds = 1,545; mammals = 567) and performed a phylogenetic meta-analysis of intraspecific correlations between body size and environmental variables. We further tested whether correlations differ between migratory and non-migratory bird and mammal species, and between thermoregulating and thermoconforming ectotherms.

Results

For bird species, smaller intraspecific body size was associated with higher mean and maximum temperatures and lower resource seasonality. Size–environment relationships followed a similar pattern in resident and migratory birds, but the effect of resource availability on body size was slightly positive only for non-migratory birds. For mammals, we found that intraspecific body size was smaller with lower resource availability and seasonality, with this pattern being more evident in sedentary than migratory species. No clear size–environment relationships were found for reptiles and amphibians.

Main conclusions

Within-species body size variation across endotherms is explained by disparate underlying mechanisms for birds and mammals. Heat conservation (Bergmann's rule) and heat dissipation are the dominant processes explaining biogeographic intraspecific body size variation in birds, whereas in mammals, body size clines are mostly explained by the starvation resistance and resource availability hypotheses. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms behind species adaptations to the environment across their geographic distributions.     

Bird dietary guild richness across latitudes,environments and biogeographic regions

Aim To integrate dietary knowledge and species distributions in order to examine the latitudinal, environmental, and biogeographical variation in the species richness of avian dietary guilds (herbivores, granivores, frugivores, nectarivores, aerial insectivores, terrestrial/arboreal insectivores, carnivores, scavengers, and omnivores). Location Global. Methods We used global breeding range maps and a comprehensive dietary database of all terrestrial bird species to calculate guild species richness for grid cells at 110 × 110 km resolution. We assessed congruence of guild species richness, quantified the steepness of latitudinal gradients and examined the covariation between species richness and climate, topography, habitat diversity and biogeographic history. We evaluated the potential of current environment and biogeographic history to explain global guild distribution and compare observed richness–environment relationships with those derived from random subsets of the global species pool. Results While most guilds (except herbivores and scavengers) showed strong congruence with overall bird richness, covariation in richness between guilds varied markedly. Guilds exhibited different peaks in species richness in geographical and multivariate environmental space, and observed richness–environment relationships mostly differed from random expectations. Latitudinal gradients in species richness were steepest for terrestrial/arboreal insectivores, intermediate for frugivores, granivores and carnivores, and shallower for all other guilds. Actual evapotranspiration emerged as the strongest climatic predictor for frugivores and insectivores, seasonality for nectarivores, and temperature for herbivores and scavengers (with opposite direction of temperature effect). Differences in species richness between biogeographic regions were strongest for frugivores and nectarivores and were evident for nectarivores, omnivores and scavengers when present‐day environment was statistically controlled for. Guild richness–environment relationships also varied between regions. Main conclusions Global associations of bird species richness with environmental and biogeographic variables show pronounced differences between guilds. Geographic patterns of bird diversity might thus result from several processes including evolutionary innovations in dietary preferences and environmental constraints on the distribution and diversification of food resources.     

Global comparisons of beta diversity among mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians across spatial scales and taxonomic ranks

Beta diversity is the change in species composition among areas in a geographic region. The proportion of species shared between two areas often decreases when the distance separating them increases, leading to an increase in beta diversity. This study compares beta diversity among four classes of terrestrial vertebrates （mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians） at both regional （biogeographic realm） and global extents, using the same sets of faunal sample units for all four groups in each comparison. Beta diversity is lower for the two endothermic taxa （birds and mammals） than for the two ectothermic taxa （reptiles and amphibians） in all six biogeographic realms examined. When the four taxa in the six biogeographic realms are combined, beta diversity at the species rank is higher than that of the genus rank by a factor of 1.24, and is higher than that of the family rank by a factor of 1.85. The ratio of beta diversity at the genus rank to that at the family rank is 1.50. Beta diversity is slightly higher for ecoregions of 5000-99,999 km^2 than for ecoregions of 100,000-5,000,000 km^2.