Effect of distance,aggregation, and habitat on levels of seed predation for two mammal — dispersed neotropical rain forest tree species

The effect of seed aggregation and distance from conspecific trees on seed predation was experimentally examined for two neotropical tree species, Macoubea guianensis (Apocynaceae) and Pouteria sp. (Sapotaceae) in a lowland tropical rain forest in northeastern Peru. Results of these experiments are discussed in the context of the Janzen-Connell model (Janzen 1970; Connell 1971), which predicts decreased seed survival near parent trees due to either density-or distance-responsive mortality, and Howe's model (Howe 1989) which predicts that trees with seeds dispersed in clumps (aggregated) will not suffer density-dependent predation, and will have higher survival of seeds near the parent tree than other trees. We also examined whether predation on seeds of these species was affected by seed placement in or near 30-m-wide strips regenerating after clear-cutting. Both species appeared to be mammal-dispersed but differed in how frugivores handled seeds, seed size, overall fruit crop size, and gemination time. Neither of the two species studied appeared to suffer seed predation in a manner predicted by the Janzen-Connell model, and patterns of seed predation for only one of the species was similar to predictions of Howe's model. For neither species did seed predation along the edge of, or in the center of, regenerating clear cuts differ from predation 15 m into the primary forest. For Pouteria, seed predation in and near regnerating strips was significantly greater than around forest trees, but the opposite pattern held for Macoubea. Overall, seed predation was much greater on Macoubea. The difference in seed predation for these two species was most likely a result of differences in the types of seed predators that attacked these two species.     

Impacts of logging on density-dependent predation of dipterocarp seeds in a South East Asian rainforest

Much of the forest remaining in South East Asia has been selectively logged. The processes promoting species coexistence may be the key to the recovery and maintenance of diversity in these forests. One such process is the Janzen-Connell mechanism, where specialized natural enemies such as seed predators maintain diversity by inhibiting regeneration near conspecifics. In Neotropical forests, anthropogenic disturbance can disrupt the Janzen-Connell mechanism, but similar data are unavailable for South East Asia. We investigated the effects of conspecific density (two spatial scales) and distance from fruiting trees on seed and seedling survival of the canopy tree Parashorea malaanonan in unlogged and logged forests in Sabah, Malaysia. The production of mature seeds was higher in unlogged forest, perhaps because high adult densities facilitate pollination or satiate pre-dispersal predators. In both forest types, post-dispersal survival was reduced by small-scale (1 m(2)) conspecific density, but not by proximity to the nearest fruiting tree. Large-scale conspecific density (seeds per fruiting tree) reduced predation, probably by satiating predators. Higher seed production in unlogged forest, in combination with slightly higher survival, meant that recruitment was almost entirely limited to unlogged forest. Thus, while logging might not affect the Janzen-Connell mechanism at this site, it may influence the recruitment of particular species.     

Dispersion pattern and mortality of seeds and seedlings ofFagus crenata Blume in a cool temperate forest in western Japan

The seed and seedling mortality ofFagus crenata Blume after a mast year (1993) was examined in relation to density and distance from the nearest conspecific adult tree in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest in Ohdaigahara, western Japan. The mortality of fallen seeds during winter amounted to 93.7%, and 79.2% of the current-year seedlings died in the first growing season. The most important factor of death for both seeds and seedlings was predation by vertebrates. The mortality of seeds during winter was positively correlated with sound seed density. The mortality of seedlings was positively correlated with density but not significantly related to the distance from the nearest crown edge of a conspecific adult tree. Mortality patterns varied with stages and spatial scales due to the behavior of predators; it is thus important to investigate the spatial pattern of seeds and seedling mortality at various temporal and spatial scales. After the first growing season, the difference in seedling density between distance classes was not significant at <4m from the nearest adult trees due to density-dependent mortality. However, seedling density was significantly lower in the ≥4 m class than in the <4 m classes.     

Temporal consistency in the spatial pattern of seed predation across a forest – old field edge

Seed predation is an important factor in determining the rate of tree establishment in abandoned agricultural land. Edges, through altered habitat use by small mammals, may influence the spatial pattern of forest regeneration in these successional sites. To determine the spatial pattern of seed predation across a forest-old field edge, we used a grid that began 30 m inside the forest and extended 60 m into the old field. Seed stations were placed at regular 10-m intervals and were monitored for removal of Acer rubrum seed for 50 d. This design was repeated over four years (1995–1998). Small mammal trapping was conducted in the final year of the study to determine the spatial pattern of seed predators within the site. Removal rates varied among the four years of the study with years of high and low removal rates. However, the spatial pattern of seed removal rate was similar in all years. Final survival ranged from 0.7–15.5% of seeds, with lower final survival in years with faster rates of seed removal (1996 and 1998). Seed removal rates and rates of discovery were greatest at the forest edge and decreased with distance into the old field. The number of seeds surviving to the end of the experiment also varied across the edge gradient, with highest survival at greater distances into the old field in low predation years. Seed removal rate covaried with spatial pattern of Peromyscus leucopus captures within the site. Seed removal and discovery was also higher under the exotic shrub Rosa multiflora, which may have provided cover for foraging seed predators. These indirect effects of edges on plant communities can potentially alter the rate and spatial pattern of tree invasion into disturbed lands and illustrate the importance of understanding plant-animal interactions in the context of habitat fragmentation.     

Acorn crop size and pre-dispersal predation determine inter-specific differences in the recruitment of co-occurring oaks

The contribution of pre-dispersal seed predation to inter-specific differences in recruitment remains elusive. In species with no resistance mechanisms, differences in pre-dispersal predation may arise from differences in seed abundance (plant satiation) or in the ability of seeds to survive insect infestation (seed satiation). This study aimed to analyse the impact of pre-dispersal acorn predation by weevils in two co-occurring Mediterranean oaks (Quercus ilex and Quercus humilis) and to compare its relevance with other processes involved in recruitment. We monitored the patterns of acorn production and acorn infestation by weevils and we conducted experimental tests of acorn germination after weevil infestation, post-dispersal predation and seedling establishment in mixed forests. Monitoring and experimental data were integrated in a simulation model to test for the effects of pre-dispersal predation in recruitment. In both oaks pre-dispersal acorn infestation decreased with increasing acorn crop size (plant satiation). This benefited Q. ilex which exhibited stronger masting behaviour than Q. humilis, with almost a single and outstanding reproductive event in 6 years. Acorn infestation was more than twice as high in Q. humilis (47.0%) as in Q. ilex (20.0%) irrespective of the number of seeds produced by each species. Although germination of infested acorns (seed satiation) was higher in Q. humilis (60%) than in Q. ilex (21%), this could barely mitigate the higher infestation rate in the former species, to reduce seed loss. Conversely to pre-dispersal predation, no inter-specific differences were observed either in post-dispersal predation or seedling establishment. Our results indicate that pre-dispersal predation may contribute to differences in seed supply, and ultimately in recruitment, between co-existing oaks. Moreover, they suggest that seed satiation can barely offset differences in seed infestation rates. This serves as a warning against overemphasising seed satiation as a mechanism to overcome seed predation by insects. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Comparative recruitment patterns of two non-pioneer canopy tree species in French Guiana

Summary A comparative study was conducted on the recruitment patterns of two non-pioneer tree species, one dispersed by arboreal mammals and birds (Virola michelii, Myristicaceae) and the other by rodents (Moronobea coccinea, Clusiaceae). These species differ in fruiting phenology, seed size, dispersal distance, germination time and seed nutrient exhaustion. In both species, establishment patterns were consistent with the escape hypothesis and the Janzen-Connell model. Virola seeds need not be buried to survive and germinate, and may produce a seedling carpet beneath the parent. Moronobea seedlings only establish from seeds buried by scatterhoarding rodents in the surrounding understory. One-year survival of Virola seedlings was 47.8% and was greater >10 m than < 10 m from the largest parent tree. In contrast, survival of Moronobea seedlings was 56% 3 years after seed dispersal. Survival of juveniles was greater in gaps than in the understory for Virola but not for Moronobea. Moronobea survival was greater than Virola survival in both microhabitats. Both species establish in the understory, yet both grew faster in gaps. Virola appeared to be more gap-dependent than Moronobea which may persist several years in the understory until a gap occurs. Virola and Moronobea illustrate two intermediate recruitment patterns along an hypothetical continuum of nonpioneer species replacement (Bazzaz and Pickett 1980; Swaine and Whitmore 1988).     

Experimental field test of spatial variation in rodent predation of nuts relative to distance and seed density

The spatial context in which seed predation occurs may modify the spatial structure of recruitment generated by seed dispersal. The Janzen–Connell (J-C) model predicts that granivores will exert greater pressure on the parent plant or at those sites where the density of dispersed seeds is higher. We have investigated how the probability of post-dispersal survival of Juglans australis varies with nut density across a hierarchy of spatial scales. We experimentally evaluated the survival of 3,120 nuts at three spatial scales: meso-scale (≤1.5 ha), as forest sites with two densities of fruiting J. australis individuals; intermediate scale (<0.2 ha), as individual trees with two experimental crop sizes; small scale (<0.1 m²), as microsites with two factors (number of nuts and distance from source). Nut removal coincided with seed predation, a condition that allowed us to test the density-dependent seed predation hypothesis. We found that the probability of nut survival was greater at forest sites with higher J. australis density. Nut survival was not affected by nut density in the seed shadow of individual specimens: at sites where J. australis density was greater, the proportion of surviving nuts did not differ between microsites located at different distances from the parent plant, but it was greater at microsites with greater initial nut density. Nut survival depended on the scale at which rodents responded to nut density, being negatively density dependent at the meso-scale and spatially random at intermediate and small scales. At the meso-scale, excess nut supply increased the probability of nut survival, which is in agreement with a model of granivore satiation near the seed source. Rodent satiation at the meso-scale may favour maintenance of sites with high J. australis density, where individual trees may have greater probabilities of passing their genes onto the next stage of the dispersal cycle.     

Variation of predator satiation and seed abortion as seed defense mechanisms across an altitudinal range

Predator satiation and seed abortion have been reported as effective mechanisms reducing pre-dispersal seed predation, however, whether they may act simultaneously and whether their contribution to seed defense may spatially vary has been barely addressed. Across the altitudinal range of the dry tropical tree Acacia pennatula we investigated the importance of seed production and seed abortion as defense mechanisms against its pre-dispersal seed predators (Mimosestes spp.). Additionally, we measured the potential relationship between the number of seeds that escaped predation and plant recruitment. Predator satiation was effective since greater fruit production was associated with a lower proportion of predated seeds, while high seed abortion rates were related to increases in larval mortality. Although both mechanisms were present simultaneously, their relative contribution varied considerably across the altitudinal range: predator satiation was favored in the middle parts of the range, where seed production is much higher, whereas seed abortion was particularly relevant at the peripheral sites and especially high at the upper margin. The number of seeds that escaped predation was related to seedling density at plot level, indicating the demographic significance of these defense mechanisms against pre-dispersal seed predation. Overall, these results highlight the importance of considering spatial variability when analyzing seed defense traits and they also suggest considering predator satiation and seed abortion as two complementary mechanisms to reduce seed loss.     

On the density-dependence of seed predation in<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Dipteryx micrantha</Emphasis>, a bat-dispersed rain forest tree

We studied the effect of seed density on seed predation by following the fate of bat-dispersed Dipteryx micrantha (Leguminosae) seeds deposited under bat feeding roosts. The study was conducted in Cocha Cashu biological station, Amazonian Peru, during the fruiting period of Dipteryx. Predation of Dipteryx seeds in the area is mainly by large to medium-sized rodents. Seed deposits beneath bat feeding roosts were monitored for a 13-week period in an 18-ha study area. A total of 210 seed deposits were found, and on average, seed predators encountered 22% of them during any one week. About one-third of the seed deposits escaped predation, and those deposits that had relatively few seeds were more likely to go unnoticed by rodents than were deposits with many seeds. The mean seed destruction rate was 8% per week; deposits with many seeds tended to lose a smaller proportion of their seeds to seed predators than did deposits with few seeds. Regression tests for the weekly data showed that, at the beginning of the observation period, seed predation was not density-dependent. Later, when the total seed crop beneath roosts was high, the number of seeds predated per deposit was positively density-dependent, while the proportion of seeds predated was negatively density-dependent, indicating predator satiation. Seed deposits that had been visited by seed predators once had a higher probability of being revisited the week after, especially if they contained many seeds when first encountered. This indicates that the foraging behavior of rodents may be affected by their remembering the location of seed-rich patches.     

天然次生林中水曲柳种子的扩散格局

 种子扩散是种群动态中的一个关键环节,研究其扩散格局对了解种子库及更新格局有重要意义。于1999～2000年在天然次生林中选择样地并设置样带,共设取样点1376个,观察和估计了水曲柳(Fraxinus mandshurica)的种子雨格局。结果发现,母树附近,尤其是冠幅范围内,各方向的种子雨没有显著差别。但种子雨密度随距离有明显变化,冠幅范围内平均可达462～903个·m-2。距冠缘10～20 m急剧减少,为50～190个·m-2。72.5%～96.4%的种子散落在距母株树干10 m 的范围内。饱满种子顺风     

Seed predation and seedling recruitment in plants: the effect of the distance between parents

We present a graphic model that explores the effect of distance between parent plants on seed predation and seedling recruitment. Based on the assumption that distance between parents may affect the shape of the seed shadow, the model predicts that seed predators may affect seedling recruitment curves under isolated plants but they are unable to affect these curves under close parent plants. The predictions of the model are tested experimentally in Cryptocarya alba (Lauraceae), a common tree of the Mediterranean forest, Central Chile. Results show that predictions are not met under isolated parent plants. Although seed density decreases significantly away from parent plants, this effect is not relevant for seed predation and seedling recruitment. The biotic/abiotic contrast existing under the canopy vs outside the canopy, plus the shade-tolerance of this tree, better explains the seedling recruitment observed under isolated parent plants. Nevertheless, the predictions of the model are corroborated under close parent plants. Seed shadows overlap to the extent that they generate a homogeneous seed distribution, homogeneous seed predation and homogeneous seedling recruitment as well. We discuss the implications of the model in terms of the spatial pattern of seedlings and the benefits of dispersal from isolated and close parent plants.     

Evidence for secondary seed dispersal by rodents in Panama

Summary The data presented show thatVirola nobilis (Myristicaceae), a bird/mammal-dispersed tree species in Panama, may also be dispersed by a terrestrial rodent, the agouti (Dasyprocta punctata). Using a thread-marking method, we observed that agoutis scatterhoardedV. nobilis seeds that they found both singly or in clumps. Seed removal and seed burial rates were strongly affected by features of forest habitats, such asV. nobilis tree richness (rich vs poor) and/or forest age (old vs young), but not by seed dispersal treatment (scattered vs clumped). Predation (mostly post-dispersal) of unburied seeds by weevils was independent of habitat and dispersal treatment. Seeds artificially buried in aVirola-rich area were more likely to escape predation and become established than unburied seeds under natural conditions. The food reward for agoutis is in the germinating seedlings. The seed dispersal syndrome ofV. nobilis involves long- and short-distance dispersers which both appear important for tree recruitment.     

鼎湖山针阔混交林锥栗种子距离制约研究

Janzen-Connell 距离制约假说认为:扩散到远离母树地点的种子,更容易逃避种子捕食者和病原体侵染。验证锥栗(Castanopsis chinensis)种子是否支持该假说,可以预测锥栗种群分布格局,解释锥栗种群更新不良的原因。在鼎湖山针阔混交林内,选择离成年母树3、10和15 m处,进行种子放置实验,以及种子消毒和未消毒埋土实验。在无覆盖实验中,10 m处大种子的消失数始终最大,种子离母树距离和种子大小两个因素对种子消失数均没有显著性影响。在排除哺乳动物实验中,种子放置第一周,种子消失数均很少。整个试验期,种子离母树距离和种子大小两个因素对种子消失数也没有显著性影响。在病原体实验中,埋土前两个月,经过消毒的种子袋中种子均保存完好,没有病原体侵染。埋土的种子从第三个月到第六个月,不同距离处的种子,以及消毒和未消毒处理的种子,被侵染数之间均有显著性差异;被侵染的种子数到第六个月趋于稳定。因此,锥栗种子被脊椎动物取食,不呈现距离制约(Distance-dependent)格局;而被病原体侵染的种子命运则支持距离制约假说。     

Interactions between mammals and trees: predation on mammal-dispersed seeds and the effect of ambient food

The Janzen-Connell escape hypothesis predicts that the success of tree propagules increases with distance from the parent tree. Fleshy fruits that are transported in the guts of frugivores are believed to have evolved to facilitate the wide dispersal of seeds. However, some frugivores deposit seeds in latrines, thus creating aggregations of seeds that are large enough to attract seed predators and negate the advantages of dispersal. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) often produce large seed deposits since they habitually defecate in latrines. The survival of wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) seeds in simulated raccoon latrines was monitored in areas with natural levels of food availability and in areas to which supplemental food had been supplied to the primary seed predators. Dispersal of seeds by raccoons did not necessarily provide effective protection from post-dispersal seed predation at natural food levels. Once the resident seed predators had located the latrines, the majority of the seeds were quickly removed. However, seed removal from raccoon latrines was reduced significantly and dramatically by the addition of alternative food. This implies that raccoon latrines may represent safe sites for tree recruitment during periods of high food availability such as during masting events, thus providing conditional support for the escape hypothesis.     

动物与植物种子更新的关系Ⅱ．动物对种子的捕食、扩散、贮藏及与幼苗建成的关系

植物的繁殖体总是面临来自各类生物（如昆虫、脊椎动物、真菌）的捕食风险。因动物捕食引起的种子死亡率影响植物的适合度、种群动态、群落结构和物种多样性的保持。种子被捕食的时间和强度成为植物生活史中发芽速度、地下种子库等特征的主要选择压力,而种子大小、生境类型等因素也影响动物对植物种子的捕食。捕食者饱和现象被认为是植物和种子捕食者之间的高度协同进化作用的结果,是限制动物破坏种子、提高被扩散种子存活率的一种选择压力。大部分群落中的大多数植物种子被动物扩散。种子扩散影响种子密度、种子被捕食率、病原体攻击率、种子与母树的距离、种子到达的生境类型以及建成的植株将与何种植物竞争,从而影响种子和幼苗的存活,最终影响母树及后代植物的适合度。种子被动物扩散后的分布一般遵循负指数分布曲线,大多数种子并没有扩散到离母树很远的地方。捕食风险、生境类型、植被盖度均影响动物对种子的扩散。植物结实的季节和果实损耗的过程也体现了其对扩散机会的适应。许多动物有贮藏植物种子的行为。动物贮藏植物繁殖体的行为,一方面调节食物的时空分布,提高了贮食动物在食物缺乏期的生存概率;另一方面也为种子萌发提供了适宜条件,促进了植物的扩散。于是,植物与贮食动物形成了一种协同进化关系,这种关系可能是自然界互惠关系（mutualism)的一种。影响幼苗存活和建成的因子包括种子贮蒇点的微生境、湿度、坡向、坡度、林冠盖度等。许多果食性动物吃掉果肉后,再将完好的种子反刍或排泄出来。种子经动物消化道处理后,发芽率常有所提高。     

The predation of predispersed Juncus squarrosus seeds by Coleophora alticolella (Lepidoptera) larvae over a range of altitudes in northern England

Seed production by the rush Juncus squarrosus and its subsequent predation by the larvae of the moth Coleophora alticolella were measured at a series of sites at different altitudes in northern England. The density of seeds produced is progressively reduced with increasing altitude. The density of larvae was greatest in the middle region of the transect. Seed predation was therefore highest at about 300 m. Predation was reduced to nil above 520 m, where the larvae were absent, but remained between 40 and 50% below 250 m. The density of predispersed seed surviving was greatest at the lowest site where the highest density of seeds was produced and predation was moderate. The lowest densities of surviving seeds were found around 300 m and also above 600 m where there was no predation but few seeds were produced. A similar density survived around 520 m as at 245 m, although the density of seed produced at 520 m was less than 30% of that at 245 m. The results are discussed in relation to the population dynamics of the moth in different parts of its altitudinal distribution.     

Offspring spatial patterns in Picconia excelsa (Oleaceae) in the Canarian laurel forest

We studied the spatial patterns of seedlings and seeds in isolated Picconia excelsa (Oleaceae) trees in the laurel forest of Anaga, Tenerife (Canary Islands). By finding isolated trees we assessed the correlation of seed and seedling bank traits and parent trees by removing the confounding effects of proximity (<100 m radius) of conspecific fruiting trees. We counted all the seedlings per age (height) class within its parental range, and sampled the seed number along transects departing from beneath the parent canopy at regular intervals. We mapped all seedlings per age class and plotted seed and seedling profiles in relation to distance to parent trees. Older Picconia seedlings tended to clump significantly further from parent trees than younger seedlings, which clumped just beneath the parents. We found significant differences among distances to parent tree in numbers of seedlings per age class. The seedling bank area was significantly correlated with maximum distance of seedlings to parent trees. The majority of seeds were deposited within the first 4 m below the parent crown. Seedlings amount at further distances from the trees is larger than seeds/fruits as counted on the ground. Our results suggest that disseminated, older seedlings have occupied germination sites far from the parent tree because there is probably lower seedling–seedling and parent–seedling competition for resources, and perhaps no intraspecific allelopathy and predation/disease.     

Post-dispersal predation of Acacia farnesiana seeds by Stator vachelliae (Bruchidae) in Central America

Summary Post-dispersal seed predation by the bruchid beetle Stator vachelliae was investigated in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. This insect finds the seeds of the leguminous Acacia farnesiana in the feces of horses, deer, and ctenosaur lizards, the current major dispersers. Patterns of oviposition and pre-adult survival of beetles in the seeds were investigated in a series of experiments using fresh horse dung. S. vachelliae never minded into the dung balls, attacking only those seeds located on the surface. Fresh horse dung did not attract insects more readily than dry dung. The proportion of seeds attacked was not related to their density in a defecation, and was similar in three areas with different densities of the host plant. In a fourth area with no fruiting A. farnesiana shrubs all seeds survived insect predation. Bruchids attacked a greater proportion of seeds at 1 m than at 5 m from the edge of the shrub's crown. Seeds were mainly removed from horse dung by rodents with similar intensity in all areas and at both distances; this seed removal interfered with bruchid oviposition and probably with bruchid survival. S. vachelliae oviposited less frequently on seeds in dung fully exposed to sun. When oviposition on a dung pile was high, the distribution of eggs on the seeds was clumped, suggesting that some seeds were preferred to others. By the end of the dry season, bruchids stopped attacking the seeds. The results show that the fate of both seeds and bruchids is greatly influenced by the location and time of defecation.     

Could poor seed dispersal contribute to predation by introduced rodents in a Hawaiian dry forest?

Dry forests are among the most diverse, yet threatened, communities in Hawai’i. Dry forests throughout the archipelago suffer from a lack of natural regeneration of trees. Two factors that may limit tree recruitment include poor seed dispersal and seed predation by rodents. Poor or limited dispersal of fleshy-fruited species results in seeds and fruits falling directly under parents. Dispersed and non-dispersed seeds may differ in their vulnerability to predation. We tested effects of seed location (under/away from parent trees) and pulp (presence/absence) on predation of four native species that suffer from limited dispersal and one readily-dispersed alien species in Kanaio Natural Area Reserve, Maui. Three natives (Diospyros sandwicensis, Pleomele auwahiensis, Santalum ellipticum), had significantly more seeds removed under parent trees than in exposed sites away from trees. For the one alien (Bocconia frutescens) and two native trees (D. sandwicensis, P. auwahiensis) that were evaluated, significantly more intact fruits were removed than were cleaned seeds. Presence of teeth marks and gnawed seed husk fragments indicate introduced rodents are destroying many of the seeds they remove. These results suggest that seed predation is disproportionately concentrated among poorly-dispersed seeds and may contribute to recruitment failure.     

Seed Availability as a Limiting Factor in Forest Recovery Processes in Costa Rica

Abandoned pastures and secondary forests are increasingly prominent features of tropical landscapes. Forest regrowth on abandoned pastures is generally slow and virtually limited to regeneration from seeds from external sources, since agricultural activities alter site conditions. We hypothesize that seed availability is a major limiting factor in forest recovery on abandoned pastures. This hypothesis was tested by studying the seed bank, seed rain, and seed predation in a small pasture (1 ha) situated in a forest‐pasture mosaic in northwestern Costa Rica. The tree seed density in the pasture seed bank was much lower (21/m²) than the density in the seed bank of a neighboring secondary forest (402/m²). Within a period of five weeks, 23 tree seeds entered the pasture by seed rain. This number is low compared to densities found in closed forests but higher than densities reported in other studies where virtually no seeds were found beyond 20 m from the forest edge. Possibly the small size of the pasture with seed sources nearby and the small‐scale landscape mosaic enhance seed dispersal. Predation limits the seed density in pastures, with 42% of the woody species consumed by predators. The low seed density in the seed bank, and hampered recruitment combined with significant losses, pose severe restrictions to forest recovery on abandoned pastures. Moderate land use, and small sized clearings with seed sources nearby may increase the pace of recovery. Nevertheless, forest establishment may still take a considerable time. Thus, enlarging the available pool of species may be a worthwhile management strategy.