An experimental study of the interrelations of Leishmania (Sauroleishmania) gymnodactyli and the sandfly Sergentomyia arpaklensis (Diptera: Phlebotominae)

Morphology, development and behaviour of Leishmania gymnodactyli in the sand fly Sergentomyia arpaklensis at different stages of blood digestion have been studied. It has been shown that leishmaniae reproduce readily and develop normally inside the food ball of sandflies. The dense peritrophic membrane is not destroyed at the end of digestion and is an insuperable obstacle for leishmaniae. Promastigotes of leishmaniae, being involved in the peritrophic membrane, are excreted together with undigested food that excludes their transmission through the bite of S. arpaklensis.     

棉铃虫围食膜的蛋白质组鉴定

【目的】围食膜(peritrophic membrane, PM)是昆虫抵御随食物摄入的病原微生物入侵的第一道天然屏障。本研究旨在鉴定出农业重大害虫棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera围食膜的总蛋白成分,为进一步揭示昆虫围食膜的形成机制及研发新颖的害虫控制策略奠定基础。【方法】剥离棉铃虫5龄幼虫PM,用三氟甲磺酸(trifluoromethane sulfonic acid, TFMS)处理,采用液质联用技术(LC-MS/MS)鉴定围食膜蛋白质组,然后对鉴定结果进行生物信息学分析。【结果】本研究共鉴定出棉铃虫幼虫围食膜蛋白质169个,是目前鉴定最多的棉铃虫围食膜蛋白。通过GO分析,可以将这些鉴定的蛋白分为细胞组分、分子功能和生物学过程三大类;KEGG富集结果显示,鉴定蛋白可以富集在12条代谢通路中;蛋白互作分析(protein protein interaction, PPI)结果表明,以ACC和CG3011等蛋白为核心可以形成蛋白互作网络。【结论】本研究鉴定了169个棉铃虫幼虫围食膜蛋白质,并对其进行了GO, KEGG和PPI分析,结果有助于人们全面理解昆虫围食膜的分子结构和功能。     

Plant resistance and its effect on the peritrophic membrane of southwestern corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) larvae

The southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella Dyar (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is a serious pest of corn, Zea mays L., in the southern United States. Corn germplasm lines with conventional genetic leaf-feeding resistance to this pest, the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), and other lepidopterans have been released to the public by USDA-ARS scientists located in Mississippi. Recent studies suggest the insect resistant lines disrupt the integrity of the peritrophic membrane of the fall armyworm. The objectives of this study were to investigate any morphological differences in the structure of the peritrophic membrane of southwestern corn borer larvae feeding on resistant and susceptible corn hybrids and to quantify the damage. Larvae were reared under field and laboratory conditions on three corn hybrids (two resistant and one susceptible). Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the peritrophic membrane for abnormalities such as holes or tears and to count the holes or tears in the membrane. Differences in the degree of damage to peritrophic membrane of larvae fed on resistant and susceptible plants were not detected. Up to five distinct layers of the membrane were observed in each larva. Variation in the amounts of damage to the peritrophic membrane observed from larvae feeding on all plant material was high. Plant resistance adversely affects growth and development of southwestern corn borer larvae, and further investigations are needed to explain the role of plant resistance and its relation to peritrophic membrane in southwestern corn borer larvae.     

Larval anatomy and structure of absorbing epithelia in the aphid parasitoid Aphidius ervi Haliday (Hymenoptera, Braconidae)

The present work describes Aphidius ervi Haliday (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) larval anatomy and development, focusing on time-related changes of body structure and cell ultrastructure, especially of the epithelial layers involved in nutrient absorption. Newly hatched 1st instar larvae of A. ervi are characterised by gut absence and a compact cluster of cells makes up their body. As the parasitoid larva develops, the central undifferentiated cell mass becomes hollowed out, leading to the formation of gut anlage. This suggests that absorption of nutrients at that stage may take place through the body surface, as more directly demonstrated by the occurrence on the epidermis of proteins associated with transepithelial transport, such as Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Second instar larvae show the presence of the gut with a well-differentiated brush border and a peritrophic membrane. Gut cells are filled by masses of glycogen granules and lipid droplets. The tracheal system starts to be visible. The haemocoel becomes evident in late 2nd instar, and contains large silk glands. Mature 3rd instar larvae are typically hymenopteriform. The midgut accounts for most of the body volume and is actively involved in nutrient absorption, as indicated by the well developed brush border and by the presence of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase and ALP on the basolateral and luminal membrane respectively. At this stage, large lipid droplets have gradually replaced the cellular glycogen stores in the midgut cells. The tracheae are completely differentiated, but their internal lumen still contains fibrillar material, suggesting that they are not functional as long as host fluids bath the parasitoid larva. In late 3rd instar larvae, silk glands, structurally similar to Malpighian tubules, show a very intense vesicular traffic toward the internal lumen, which, eventually, results in being filled by secretion products, suggesting the possible recycling of metabolic waste products during mummy formation.     

Permeability of the peritrophic membranes of some Diptera to labelled dextrans

The permeability of the continuous, tube-like peritrophic membrane of some Diptera was investigated. Dyes, haemoglobin, cytochrome c, horseradish peroxidase, and especially dextran fractions labelled with the fluorescent dye fluorescein isothiocyanate were used as markers. The peritrophic membrane of larvae of Aedes aegypti was permeable only to dextran with a molecular weight of less than 2,400 Daltons; Evans Blue (960.8 Daltons) permeated only slowly through this peritrophic membrane. Labelled dextran with a mol. wt of 32,000 Daltons did not penetrate the peritrophic membrane of larvae of Anopheles stephensi. Dextrans larger than 32,000 Daltons did not permeate through the peritrophic membrane of Culex pipiens, Odagmia ornata, Anisopus (Phryne) cinctus, Sarcophaga barbata and Calliphora erythrocephala. Labelled dextran with mol. wt of 4,000–6,000 Daltons penetrated only slowly, and dextran of 6,200 Daltons did not penetrate the peritrophic membranes of adults of Sarcophaga barbata. The peritrophic membranes of the blowfly, Calliphora erythrocephala, were permeated slowly by dextran of 6,200 Daltons but not by dextran of 17,200 Daltons. Dextrans are readily soluble in water where the long chains form coils of round or oval shape. Charged protein molecules are more compact with smaller radii when compared to a dextran fraction of the same molecular weight. Therefore the results of investigations on permeability have to be compared in terms of the effective radii and not of the molecular weight.     

天然产物梣酮对粘虫围食膜的影响

【目的】梣酮是从芸香科植物白鲜Diatamnus dasycarpus根皮中分离出的一种化合物, 对试虫表现出胃毒活性。本研究旨在检测梣酮对粘虫Mythimna separata 6龄幼虫中肠围食膜的影响, 从而进一步阐明梣酮的杀虫作用机理。【方法】经活体及离体处理, 通过生化分析和扫描电镜观察等方法, 研究了梣酮处理对粘虫幼虫中肠围食膜糖含量, 蛋白质含量和组分以及围食膜表面结构的影响。【结果】梣酮(20 mg/mL)活体处理降低了粘虫6龄幼虫围食膜的蛋白质含量, 却使糖含量升高。活体(20 mg/mL梣酮)及离体(8 mg/mL梣酮)处理条件下, 围食膜糖含量分别为对照组的1.75倍及2.17倍。SDS-PAGE结果显示, 离体及活体条件下经梣酮处理, 围食膜部分蛋白质降解。围食膜解剖扫描电镜观察表明, 梣酮处理可造成围食膜微纤丝排列紊乱。【结论】天然产物梣酮处理对粘虫中肠围食膜的糖含量及蛋白质含量和组分有影响,且改变了围食膜表面结构。本研究为深入地研究梣酮杀虫作用机理奠定了基础。     

Disruption of the peritrophic matrix by exogenous chitinase feeding reduces fecundity in Lutzomyia longipalpis females

Lutzomyia longipalpis is the most important vector of visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. When female sandflies feed on blood, a peritrophic matrix (PM) is formed around the blood bolus. The PM is secreted by midgut cells and composed of proteins, glycoproteins and chitin microfibrils. The PM functions as both a physical barrier against pathogens present in the food bolus and blood meal digestion regulator. Previous studies of mosquitoes and sandflies have shown that the absence of a PM, resulting from adding an exogenous chitinase to the blood meal, accelerates digestion. In the present study, we analysed biological factors associated with the presence of a PM in L. longipalpis females. Insects fed blood containing chitinase (BCC) accelerated egg-laying relative to a control group fed blood without chitinase. However, in the BCC-fed insects, the number of females that died without laying eggs was higher and the number of eggs laid per female was lower. The eggs in both groups were viable and generated adults. Based on these data, we suggest that the absence of a PM accelerates nutrient acquisition, which results in premature egg production and oviposition; however, the absence of a PM reduces the total number of eggs laid per female. Reduced fecundity in the absence of a PM may be due to inefficient nutrient conversion or the loss of the protective role of the PM.     

Effect of mouse antisera targeting the Phlebotomus papatasi midgut chitinase PpChit1 on sandfly physiology and fitness

In sandflies, the absence of the peritrophic matrix (PM) affects the rate of blood digestion. Also, the kinetics of PM secretion varies according to species. We previously characterised PpChit1, a midgut-specific chitinase secreted in Phlebotomus papatasi (PPIS) that is involved in the maturation of the PM and showed that antibodies against PpChit1 reduce the chitinolytic activity in the midgut of several sandfly species. Here, sandflies were fed on red blood cells reconstituted with naïve or anti-PpChit1 sera and assessed for fitness parameters that included blood digestion, oviposition onset, number of eggs laid, egg bouts, average number of eggs per bout and survival. In PPIS, anti-PpChit1 led to a one-day delay in the onset of egg laying, with flies surviving three days longer compared to the control group. Anti-PpChit1 also had a negative effect on overall ability of flies to lay eggs, as several gravid females from all three species were unable to lay any eggs despite having lived longer than control flies. Whereas the longer survival might be associated with improved haeme scavenging ability by the PM, the inability of females to lay eggs is possibly linked to changes in PM permeability affecting nutrient absorption.     

The intestinal barrier in lepidopteran larvae: permeability of the peritrophic membrane and of the midgut epithelium to two biologically active peptides

Endogenous peptide regulators of insect physiology and development are presently being considered as potential biopesticides, but their efficacy by oral delivery cannot be easily anticipated because of the limited information on how the insect gut barrier handles these kind of molecules. We investigated, in Bombyx mori larvae, the permeability properties of the two components of the intestinal barrier, the peritrophic membrane (PM) and the midgut epithelium, separately isolated and perfused in conventional Ussing chambers. The PM discriminated compounds of different dimensions but was easily crossed by two small peptides recently proposed as bioinsecticides, the neuropeptide proctolin and Aedes aegypti Trypsin Modulating Oostatic Factor (Aea-TMOF), although their flux values indicated that the permeability was highly affected by their steric conformation. To date, there is very little functional data available on how peptides cross the insect intestinal epithelium, but it has been speculated that peptides could reach the haemocoel through the paracellular pathway. We characterized the permeability properties of this route to a number of organic molecules, showing that B. mori septate junction was highly selective to both the dimension and the charge of the permeant compound. Confocal images of whole-mount midguts incubated with rhodamine(rh)-proctolin or fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-Aea-TMOF added to the mucosal side of the epithelium, revealed that rh-proctolin did not enter the cell and crossed the midgut only by the paracellular pathway, while FITC-Aea-TMOF did cross the cell apical membrane, permeating also through the transcellular route.     

Vectors of the filaria Thamugadia ivaschkini (Splendidofilariidae) in the southern Turkmen SSR

1903 specimens of sandflies and mosquitoes were examined for their spontaneous infection with larvae of Thamugadia ivaschkini. The experimental infection of sandflies and mosquitoes was conducted on infected lizards. It has been established that the vectors of this filaria in the south of Turkmenia are sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia arpaclensis. The development of the helminth carries out in thoracic muscles of sandflies, the first infective larvae appear in 7 to 17 days after the infection of vectors.     

Evidence for a sugar receptor (lectin) in the peritrophic membrane of the blowfly larva, Calliphora erythrocephala Mg. (Diptera)

For the first time a sugar receptor (lectin) has been localized by electron microscopy in an invertebrate. The peritrophic membrane of the blowfly larva, Calliphora erythrocephala, is shown here to express lectins with high specificity for mannose. The lectin is restricted to the lumen side of the peritrophic membrane. The surface of the midgut epithelium is devoid of mannose-specific lectins. It is suggested that the midgut epithelium has lost these lectins during the course of evolution in favour of the peritrophic membrane which is secreted by specialized cells only at the beginning of the midgut.Peritrophic membranes and the midgut epithelium lack lectins specific for galactose. The lumen side of the peritrophic membrane of the larvae has mannose and/or glucose residues, and it is densely packed with two species of bacteria, Proteus vulgaris and P. morganii. These also have mannose-specific lectins as well as mannose residues on their pili. The existence of mannose-specific receptors and mannose residues on both, peritrophic membranes and bacteria, leads to the assumption of mutual adherence between the two surfaces.     

The peritrophic membrane of Spodoptera frugiperda: secretion of peritrophins and role in immobilization and recycling digestive enzymes

A peritrophin from the Spodoptera frugiperda peritrophic membrane (PM) and microvillar proteins from S. frugiperda anterior midgut cells were isolated and used to raise antibodies in a rabbit. These antibodies, as well as a Tenebrio molitor amylase antibody that cross-reacts with S. frugiperda amylases, and wheat-germ aglutinin were used in immunolocalization experiments performed with the aid of confocal fluorescence and immunogold techniques. The results showed that the peritrophin was secreted by anterior midgut columnar cells in vesicles pinched-off the microvilli (microapocrine secretion). The resulting double membrane vesicles become single membrane vesicles by membrane fusion, releasing peritrophin and part of the amylase and trypsin. The remaining membranes still containing microvillar proteins and membrane-bound amylase and trypsin are incorporated into a jelly-like material associated with PM. Calcofluor-treated larvae lacking a PM were shown to lose the decreasing gradient of trypsin and chymotrypsin observed along the midgut of control larvae. This gradient is thought to be formed by a countercurrent flux of fluid (in the space between PM and midgut cells) that powers enzyme recycling.     

Digestive enzymes in midgut cells,endo-and ectoperitrophic contents,and peritrophic membranes of Spodoptera frugiperda (lepidoptera) larvae

In the midgut of Spodoptera frugiperda larvae, subcellular fractionation data suggest that aminopeptidase and part of amylase, carboxypeptidase A, dipeptidase, and trypsin are bound to the microvillar membranes; that major amounts of soluble dipeptidase, cellobiase, and maltase are trapped in the cell glycocalyx; and finally that soluble carboxypeptidase, amylase, and trypsin occur in intracellular vesicles. Most luminal acetylglucosaminidase is soluble and restricted to the ectoperitrophic contents. Aminopeptidase occurs in minor amounts bound to membranes both in the ectoperitrophic contents and incorporated in the peritrophic membrane. Amylase, carboxypeptidase A, and trypsin are found in minor amounts in the ectoperitrophic contents (both soluble and membrane-bound) and in major amounts in the peritrophic membrane with contents. Part of the activities recovered in the last mentioned contents corresponds to enzyme molecules incorporated in the peritrophic membrane. The results suggest that initial digestion is carried out in major amounts by enzymes in the endoperitrophic space and, in minor amounts, by enzymes immobilized in the peritrophic membrane. Intermediate and final digestion occur at the ectoperitrophic space or at the surface of midgut cells. The results also lend support to the hypothesis that amylase and trypsin are derived from membrane-bound forms, are released in soluble form by a microapocrine mechanism, and are partly incorporated into the peritrophic membrane. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

昆虫病毒的增强蛋白

在某些昆虫病毒的包涵体中相继发现了增强蛋白．这类蛋白可以增强核型多角体病毒对昆虫幼虫及体外培养的昆虫细胞的感染力,缩短杀虫时间,提高杀虫效率;还可以增强其他生物杀虫剂（如：Bt）的毒力．关于增强蛋白的作用机制有两种观点：降解围食膜以利于病毒粒子侵染细胞或直接作用于细胞质膜促进病毒粒子的套膜与之融合．该蛋白是由病毒编码的,现已克隆出第一个增强蛋白基因,该基因含有一个2703bP的开放阅读框,其核苷酸序列分析业已完成．增强蛋白的发现有望对病毒杀虫剂的推广产生积极影响．     

The utility of camptothecin as a synergist of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki and nucleopolyhedroviruses against Trichoplusia ni and Spodoptera exigua

We studied the effect of combining microbial pesticides with camptothecin (CPT) on the mortality of two lepidopteran insects: Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) and Spodoptera exigua (Hübner). CPT is an alkaloid that is often used as an anticancer agent. Here, CPT was evaluated as a microbial pesticide synergist of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and insect baculovirus. The toxicity of CPT and its synergistic effects on two microbial pesticides were studied using the diet overlay method. Bioassay results showed that CPT significantly enhances the toxicity of Bt variety kurstaki to S. exigua and T ni. In addition, CPT strongly enhanced the infectivity of Autographa californica (Speyer) multinucleocapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) and S. exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeMNPV). Using light microscopy, we found that CPT disrupts the peritrophic membrane of T. ni larvae and severely affects the structure of the midgut, resulting in an abnormal gut lumen morphology. We speculate that CPT increases toxicity by affecting the permeability of the peritrophic membrane.     

Formation,properties and degradation of the peritrophic membranes of larval and adult fleshflies,Parasarcophaga argyrostoma (Insecta,Diptera)

Summary Parasarcophaga argyrostoma larvae continuously secrete a single, tube-like peritrophic membrane (PM), which has an electron-dense layer on the lumen side and a thicker chitin-containing electron-lucent part on the epithelium side. In the adult fleshfly, the secretion of PMs starts immediately after emergence. The initial part of the PMs is twisted and tight. The formation zone is folded with two separate secretory pads in which two tube-like PMs are formed continuously. The PMs are different, morphologically and with respect to their peripheral carbohydrate residues. The latter could be demonstrated with lectin gold conjugates. PM 1 consists of an electron-dense, chitin-free layer on the lumen side and a thicker part which contains chitin microfibrils in the matrix. PM 2 appears fluffy and has chitin microfibrils in its matrix, too. Chitin could be localized with WGA gold. Incubation of isolated PM 1 with lectin gold resulted in a peculiar pattern of bound lectins and gaps on the electron dense layer which otherwise appeared to be homogenous. Degradation of peritrophic membranes takes place in the hindgut. The cuticle of the anterior hindgut is studded with small teeth, which seem to be responsible for mechanical degradation of the peritrophic membranes into frayed pieces. This may be completed by the teeth on the rectal pads. From the appearance of the remnants of the peritrophic membranes it can be inferred that chemical degradation takes place in the hindgut.Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft     

The peritrophic membrane as a barrier: its penetration by Plasmodium gallinaceum and the effect of a monoclonal antibody to ookinetes

We studied the point at which a monoclonal antibody (mAb C5) to a surface protein (Pgs25) on Plasmodium gallinaceum ookinetes blocked the infection of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The antibody did not block the development of zygotes to ookinetes in vitro. Development of ookinetes to oocysts in the mosquito was blocked to the same extent whether zygotes grew to ookinetes in the presence of mAb C5 or the antibody was added after the ookinetes had reached full development. When ookinetes developed in vitro in the presence of mAb C5, antibody remained on the surface of the parasite for the next 50 hr and did not block attachment to the peritrophic membrane. When ookinetes were fed to mosquitoes, two subpopulations of mosquitoes were observed (high numbers of oocysts per midgut and low numbers of oocysts per midgut). mAb C5 reduced the number of oocysts per midgut in the subpopulation that had low numbers of oocysts. The subpopulation that had high numbers of oocysts was unaffected by antibody, indicating that the antibody did not block invasion of the midgut epithelium. When mAb C5 was fed with gametocytes, the parasites invaded the epithelium at the same time (between 30 and 35 hr after the blood meal) as in controls, although at a markedly reduced rate. The ultrastructural observations were consistent with a block of parasites within the peritrophic membrane and not with a block at the epithelium, as parasites were not seen to accumulate within the space between the peritrophic membrane and the epithelium. The mechanism by which mAb C5 to Pgs25 of P. gallinaceum blocks the penetration of the peritrophic membrane remains undefined. We present evidence that the parasite modifies the peritrophic membrane during penetration, an observation first made for Babesia microti during penetration of the peritrophic membrane in Ixodes ticks. Ookinetes in the absence of antibodies appeared to disrupt the layers of the peritrophic membrane, suggesting an enzymatic mechanism for penetration.     

Development of Onchocerca volvulus microfilariae injected into Simulium species from Cameroon

Microfilariae (mff) of the savanna and forest strains of Onchocerca volvulus (Leuckart) were injected intrathoracically into adult females of Simulium damnosum Theobald sensu stricto, S.sirbanum Vajime & Dunbar, S.squamosum Enderlein and S.mengense Vajime & Dunbar. Nine days post infection (pi) 27-29% of the savanna mff and 31-38% of the forest strain had developed to third-stage larvae (L3), irrespective of the fly species, size or injection dose (5, 10 or 15 mff). Savanna flies supported the development of forest O.volvulus better than forest flies, in contrast to the results after per os infections. Therefore, in these four species of the S.damnosum complex from Cameroon, the peritrophic membrane is considered to be the main factor limiting the success rate of microfilarial development following the ingestion of blood infections, while the fly's haemolymph and intracellular environment play minor roles.     

Secretion of the type 2 peritrophic matrix protein, peritrophin-15, from the cardia

The midgut of most insects is lined with a peritrophic matrix, which is thought to facilitate digestion and protect the midgut digestive epithelial cells from abrasive damage and invasion by ingested micro-organisms. The type 2 peritrophic matrix is synthesised by a complex and highly specialised organ called the cardia typically located at the junction of the cuticle-lined foregut and midgut. Although the complex anatomy of this small organ has been described, virtually nothing is known of the molecular processes that lead to the assembly of the type 2 peritrophic matrix in the cardia. As a step towards understanding the synthesis of the peritrophic matrix, the synthesis and secretion of the intrinsic peritrophic matrix protein, peritrophin-15 has been followed in the cardia of Lucilia cuprina larvae using immuno-gold localisations. The protein is synthesised by cardia epithelial cells, which have abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, and vesicles indicative of a general secretory function. Peritrophin-15 is packaged into secretory vesicles probably produced from Golgi and transported to the cytoplasmic face of the apical plasma membrane. The vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane at the base of the microvilli and release peritrophin-15 into the inter-microvilli spaces. The protein then becomes associated with the nascent peritrophic matrix, which lies along the tips of the epithelial cell microvilli. It is proposed that peritrophin-15 binds to the ends of chitin fibrils present in the nascent peritrophic matrix, thereby protecting the fibril from the action of exochitinases.     

Spatial organization of digestion in the larval and imaginal stages of the sciarid fly Trichosia pubescens

Aminopeptidase, amylase, cellulase and trypsin are found in major amounts in the midgut lumen, whereas alkaline phosphatase, cellobiase, α-glucosidase, maltase and trehalase occur mainly in the midgut tissue of Trichosia pubescens larvae. Cellulase and a part of the amylase seem to be derived from the fungi the larvae eat. Based on the molecular weights of the enzymes which pass and of those which do not pass through the peritrophic membrane, it is possible to estimate the peritrophic membrane pores as having diameters of 7.5–8.0 nm. Purification and assays of microvillar enzymes from different larval midgut regions suggest that alkaline phosphatase, cellobiase, α-glucosidase, maltase and trehalase are bound to the plasma membrane chiefly of midgut caeca cells. The results support the hypothesis that digestion starts in the endoperitrophic space under the action of amylase, cellulase and trypsin, goes on in the ectoperitrophic space by amylase, cellulase and aminopeptidase and is completed through the catalytic action of plasma membrane-bound hydrolases. The data lead to the conclusion that the spatial organization in T. pubescens larvae is identical to that of another Sciarid fly (Rhynchosciara americana) despite the finding that the midgut trehalase is bound to the plasma membrane in T. pubescens and soluble in R. americana. With metamorphosis salivary amylase appears, α-glucosidase, trehalase and maltase increase, and the other midgut hydrolases decrease or even disappear. This is in accordance with the fact that the larvae feed on decaying plants and fungi and the imagoes feed on nectar.