Functional Analysis of Glycoprotein L (gL) from Rhesus Lymphocryptovirus in Epstein-Barr Virus-Mediated Cell Fusion Indicates a Direct Role of gL in gB-Induced Membrane Fusion

Glycoprotein L (gL), which complexes with gH, is a conserved herpesvirus protein that is essential for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) entry into host cells. The gH/gL complex has a conserved role in entry among herpesviruses, yet the mechanism is not clear. To gain a better understanding of the role of gL in EBV-mediated fusion, chimeric proteins were made using rhesus lymphocryptovirus (Rh-LCV) gL (Rh gL), which shares a high sequence homology with EBV gL but does not complement EBV gL in mediating fusion with B cells. A reduction in fusion activity was observed with chimeric gL proteins that contained the amino terminus of Rh gL, although they retained their ability to process and transport gH/gL to the cell surface. Amino acids not conserved within this region in EBV gL when compared to Rh gL were further analyzed, with the results mapping residues 54 and 94 as being functionally important for EBV-mediated fusion. All chimeras and mutants displayed levels of cell surface expression similar to that of wild-type gL and interacted with gH and gp42. Our data also suggest that the role of gL involves the activation or recruitment of gB with the gH/gL complex, as we found that reduced fusion of Rh gL, EBV/Rh-LCV chimeras, and gL point mutants could be restored by replacing EBV gB with Rh gB. These observations demonstrate a distinction between the role of gL in the processing and trafficking of gH to the cell surface and a posttrafficking role in cell-cell fusion.Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a member of the lymphocryptovirus (LCV) subgroup of gammaherpesviruses and primarily infects epithelial and B lymphocytes, where it establishes productive and latent infections, respectively (8, 40). EBV is extremely prevalent in humans, with more than 90% of the population being infected. Following primary infection, EBV persists in a latent state in memory B lymphocytes, where it can remain indefinitely (3, 43). The expansion and proliferation of these cells can lead to the development of a number of EBV-related malignancies, including tumors of lymphoid tissues, such as Hodgkin''s lymphoma, Burkitt''s lymphoma, and some T-cell lymphomas, as well as tumors associated with epithelial tissues, such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma and gastric carcinoma (5, 32, 36, 48). EBV is also associated with lymphoproliferative disorders in immunocompromised patients, such as oral hairy leukoplakia and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders (12, 15, 43, 45).Herpesvirus entry is a multistep process that includes the initial binding of the virus to the cell surface, interaction with a cellular entry receptor, membrane-virion fusion, and internalization of the virion (40). The enveloped membrane of EBV contains numerous glycoproteins that are necessary for mediating attachment and the subsequent fusion between viral and cell membranes, although the required glycoproteins differ for epithelial and B-cell infection (13, 22). Infection of B cells is initiated upon the binding of EBV glycoprotein gp350/220 to the CD21/CR2 cellular receptor expressed on target cells (9, 27, 41). Following the initial binding, viral glycoprotein gp42 binds to human leukocyte antigen class II (HLA class II) and triggers fusion, which is mediated by the concerted actions of glycoproteins gB, gH, and gL (21, 41). Glycoproteins gH and gL form a heteromeric complex that is conserved among the herpesvirus family despite a low degree of sequence homology in gH and gL across herpesviruses (33, 40). The gH/gL complex has an essential role in entry of herpesviruses, yet the exact role of each protein is not well understood. The role of gH is thought to be in cell fusion, while gL mediates processing and transport of gH to the cell surface (34, 35, 47, 51). Since gL is generally essential for the proper processing and transport of gH in all herpesviruses, it has been difficult to examine the role of gL separate from gH.While little is known about the role of gL in EBV-mediated fusion, data from studies of other herpesviruses have suggested a more direct role of gL in fusion. Antibodies specific for the C terminus of herpes simplex virus (HSV) gL, mapped to residues 168 to 224, were found to inhibit fusion with some strains of HSV type 1 (HSV-1), suggesting a role of this region in fusion (28). Deletion analysis of HSV-1 gL determined that the first 161 amino acids of gL are sufficient for binding gH, and further deletion identified the region between amino acids 155 and 161 of HSV-1 gL as critical for gH transport and cell fusion (19, 20, 33). Together, the results of these studies suggest that the inhibition of fusion observed with gL antibodies (Abs) is not due to an inhibition of gH/gL complex formation. Another study found that mutations to the amino-terminal region of HSV-2 gH permitted transport of the glycoprotein to the cell surface independent of gL but that gL was still required for fusion, suggesting a role of gL in fusion after the complex has trafficked to the plasma membrane (6). Most recently, the results of an investigation of the functional homology of the primate rhesus LCV (Rh-LCV) gL (Rh gL) suggest that gL may have a functional role in EBV fusion with B cells. Rh gL shares a high degree of sequence similarity with EBV (81.6%), and yet, the glycoprotein was unable to mediate fusion with human B cells when expressed with either EBV gH or Rh gH, even though the gH/gL complex was detected on the cell surface and Rh gL could associate with gH and gp42 (31). The LCV that infects rhesus primates is biologically similar to EBV in that it shares a similar genome organization, repertoire of lytic and latent genes, and pathogenesis (7, 25, 37, 46).To gain a better understanding of the role of gL in EBV-mediated fusion with B cells, we constructed chimeric gL proteins that included portions of Rh gL inserted into the sequence of EBV gL. We identified the amino terminus of EBV gL as being functionally necessary in mediating fusion with B cells, and this role is distinguishable from the role of gL in the processing and transport of gH to the cell surface. Single and double point mutations were constructed in both EBV and Rh gL, and our results indicated that residues 54 and 94 are functionally critical in mediating fusion with B cells. Interestingly, our studies also identified a species-specific reliance between gL and gB, suggesting a possible association between these two glycoproteins that is necessary in mediating fusion. Thus, our studies demonstrated that EBV gL has a more substantial role in mediating fusion with B cells that is distinct from its role in the processing and trafficking of gH.     

Reinitiation of DNA Synthesis in Postmitotic Nuclei of Myotubes by Virus-Mediated Fusion with Embryonic Fibroblasts

Myotubes, whose nuclei have stopped DNA synthesis were fused with replicative embryonic fibroblasts. In heterokaryons the postmitotic muscle nuclei resumed DNA synthesis. Incorporation of radioactive thymidine into muscle, and also into fibroblast nuclei was dependent upon the time elapsed between virus-mediated fusion and administration of radioactive thymidine. Whereas incorporation into fibroblast nuclei diminished with time, there was an early increase of labelling into muscle nuclei followed by a decrease of incorporation of ³H thymidine. DNA synthesis was also dependent upon the ratio of noncycling (muscle) to cycling (fibroblast) nuclei. There was a greater incorporation of ³H thymidine into muscle and fibroblast nuclei in myotubes containing larger numbers of fibroblast nuclei. A model is discussed for the control of DNA synthesis in polykaryocytes derived from fusion of cycling and noncycling cells.     

Lysine-Oriented Charges Trigger the Membrane Binding and Activity of Nukacin ISK-1

The antibacterial activities and membrane binding of nukacin ISK-1 and its fragments and mutants were evaluated to delineate the determinants governing structure-function relationships. The tail region (nukacin_1-7) and ring region (nukacin_7-27) were shown to have no antibacterial activity and also had no synergistic effect on each other or even on nukacin ISK-1. Both a fragment with three lysines in the N terminus deleted (nukacin_4-27) and a mutant with three lysines in the N terminus replaced with alanine (K1-3A nukacin ISK-1) imparted very low activity (32-fold lower than nukacin ISK-1) and also exhibited a similar antagonistic effect on nukacin ISK-1. Addition of two lysine residues at the N terminus (+2K nukacin ISK-1) provided no further increased antibacterial activity. Surface plasmon resonance sensorgrams and kinetic rate constants determined by a BIAcore biosensor revealed that nukacin ISK-1 has remarkably higher binding affinity to anionic model membrane than to zwitterionic model membrane. Similar trends of strong binding responses and kinetics were indicated by the high affinities of nukacin ISK-1 and +2K nukacin ISK-1, but there was no binding of tail region, ring region, nukacin_4-27, and K1-3A nukacin ISK-1 to the anionic model membrane. Our findings therefore suggest that the complete structure of nukacin ISK-1 is necessary for its full activity, in which the N-terminus three lysine residues play a crucial role in electrostatic binding to the target membrane and therefore nukacin ISK-1's ability to exert its potent antibacterial activity.     

Mutations in the Putative Dimer-Dimer Interfaces of the Measles Virus Hemagglutinin Head Domain Affect Membrane Fusion Triggering

Measles virus (MV), an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the Paramyxoviridae family, enters the cell through membrane fusion mediated by two viral envelope proteins, an attachment protein hemagglutinin (H) and a fusion (F) protein. The crystal structure of the receptor-binding head domain of MV-H bound to its cellular receptor revealed that the MV-H head domain forms a tetrameric assembly (dimer of dimers), which occurs in two forms (forms I and II). In this study, we show that mutations in the putative dimer-dimer interface of the head domain in either form inhibit the ability of MV-H to support membrane fusion, without greatly affecting its cell surface expression, receptor binding, and interaction with the F protein. Notably, some anti-MV-H neutralizing monoclonal antibodies are directed to the region around the dimer-dimer interface in form I rather than receptor-binding sites. These observations suggest that the dimer-dimer interactions of the MV-H head domain, especially that in form I, contribute to triggering membrane fusion, and that conformational shift of head domain tetramers plays a role in the process. Furthermore, our results indicate that although the stalk and transmembrane regions may be mainly responsible for the tetramer formation of MV-H, the head domain alone can form tetramers, albeit at a low efficiency.     

Membrane Fusion Induced by Phospholipase C and Sphingomyelinases

In the past decade lipid vesicle fusion induced by either bacterial PC-preferring phospholipase C, phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C, sphingomyelinase, or a combination of phospholipase C and sphingomyelinase has been demonstrated. In the present paper, the experimental evidence is reviewed, and discussed in terms of the underlying molecular mechanisms of fusion, and of the possible physiological relevance of these findings.     

Mitofusins and OPA1 Mediate Sequential Steps in Mitochondrial Membrane Fusion

Mitochondrial fusion requires the coordinated fusion of the outer and inner membranes. Three large GTPases—OPA1 and the mitofusins Mfn1 and Mfn2—are essential for the fusion of mammalian mitochondria. OPA1 is mutated in dominant optic atrophy, a neurodegenerative disease of the optic nerve. In yeast, the OPA1 ortholog Mgm1 is required for inner membrane fusion in vitro; nevertheless, yeast lacking Mgm1 show neither outer nor inner membrane fusion in vivo, because of the tight coupling between these two processes. We find that outer membrane fusion can be readily visualized in OPA1-null mouse cells in vivo, but these events do not progress to inner membrane fusion. Similar defects are found in cells lacking prohibitins, which are required for proper OPA1 processing. In contrast, double Mfn-null cells show neither outer nor inner membrane fusion. Mitochondria in OPA1-null cells often contain multiple matrix compartments bounded together by a single outer membrane, consistent with uncoupling of outer versus inner membrane fusion. In addition, unlike mitofusins and yeast Mgm1, OPA1 is not required on adjacent mitochondria to mediate membrane fusion. These results indicate that mammalian mitofusins and OPA1 mediate distinct sequential fusion steps that are readily uncoupled, in contrast to the situation in yeast.     

雌激素调节人血管紧张肽原基因表达的顺式作用元件分析

为了鉴定人血管紧张肽原（ＡＧＴ）基因的雌激素调控元件,在ＡＧＴ基因转录起始点和ＴＡＴＡ框之间的一段核苷酸序列与雌激素应答元件共有寡核苷酸序列高度同源,通过电泳迁移率变动分析,证明该ＤＮＡ序列为雌激素应答元件（ＨＡＧ ＥＲＥ）。将带有ＨＡＧＥＲＥ的ＡＧＴ基因核心启动子同氯霉素乙酰转移酶（ＣＡＴ）报道基因融合,或将多拷贝ＨＡＧ ＥＲＥ同ＴＫ核心启动子连接,再与ＣＡＴ基因融合,构成表达载体,与人雌激素     

Magainin 2 and PGLa in Bacterial Membrane Mimics II: Membrane Fusion and Sponge Phase Formation

We studied the synergistic mechanism of equimolar mixtures of magainin 2 (MG2a) and PGLa in phosphatidylethanolamine/phosphatidylglycerol mimics of Gram-negative cytoplasmic membranes. In a preceding article of this series, we reported on the early onset of parallel heterodimer formation of the two antimicrobial peptides already at low concentrations and the resulting defect formation in the membranes. Here, we focus on the structures of the peptide-lipid aggregates occurring in the synergistic regime at elevated peptide concentrations. Using a combination of calorimetric, scattering, electron microscopic, and in silico techniques, we demonstrate that the two peptides, even if applied individually, transform originally large unilamellar vesicles into multilamellar vesicles with a collapsed interbilayer spacing resulting from peptide-induced adhesion. Interestingly, the adhesion does not lead to a peptide-induced lipid separation of charged and charge-neutral species. In addition to this behavior, equimolar mixtures of MG2a and PGLa formed surface-aligned fibril-like structures, which induced adhesion zones between the membranes and the formation of transient fusion stalks in molecular dynamics simulations and a coexisting sponge phase observed by small-angle x-ray scattering. The previously reported increased leakage of lipid vesicles of identical composition in the presence of MG2a/PGLa mixtures is therefore related to a peptide-induced cross-linking of bilayers.     

Sphingomyelin Synthase 2, but Not Sphingomyelin Synthase 1, Is Involved in HIV-1 Envelope-mediated Membrane Fusion

Membrane fusion between the viral envelope and plasma membranes of target cells has previously been correlated with HIV-1 infection. Lipids in the plasma membrane, including sphingomyelin, may be crucially involved in HIV-1 infection; however, the role of lipid-metabolic enzymes in membrane fusion remains unclear. In this study, we examined the roles of sphingomyelin synthase (SMS) in HIV-1 Env-mediated membrane fusion using a cell-cell fusion assay with HIV-1 mimetics and their target cells. We employed reconstituted cells as target cells that stably express Sms1 or Sms2 in Sms-deficient cells. Fusion susceptibility was ∼5-fold higher in Sms2-expressing cells (not in Sms1-expressing cells) than in Sms-deficient cells. The enhancement of fusion susceptibility observed in Sms2-expressing cells was reversed and reduced by Sms2 knockdown. We also found that catalytically nonactive Sms2 promoted membrane fusion susceptibility. Moreover, SMS2 co-localized and was constitutively associated with the HIV receptor·co-receptor complex in the plasma membrane. In addition, HIV-1 Env treatment resulted in a transient increase in nonreceptor tyrosine kinase (Pyk2) phosphorylation in Sms2-expressing and catalytically nonactive Sms2-expressing cells. We observed that F-actin polymerization in the region of membrane fusion was more prominent in Sms2-expressing cells than Sms-deficient cells. Taken together, our research provides insight into a novel function of SMS2 which is the regulation of HIV-1 Env-mediated membrane fusion via actin rearrangement.     

Effects of Mutations in the Rubella Virus E1 Glycoprotein on E1-E2 Interaction and Membrane Fusion Activity

Rubella virus (RV) virions contain two glycosylated membrane proteins, E1 and E2, that exist as a heterodimer and form the viral spike complexes on the virion surface. Formation of an E1-E2 heterodimer is required for transport of E1 out of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen to the Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane. To investigate the nature of the E1-E2 interaction, we have introduced mutations in the internal hydrophobic region (residues 81 to 109) of E1. Substitution of serine at Cys82 (mutant C82S) or deletion of this hydrophobic domain (mutant dt) of E1 resulted in a disruption of the E1 conformation that ultimately affected E1-E2 heterodimer formation and cell surface expression of both E1 and E2. Substitution of either aspartic acid at Gly93 (G93D) or glycine at Pro104 (P104G) was found to impair neither E1-E2 heterodimer formation nor the transport of E1 and E2 to the cell surface. Fusion of RV-infected cells is induced by a brief treatment at a pH below 6.0. To test whether this internal hydrophobic domain is involved in the membrane fusion activity of RV, transformed BHK cell lines expressing either wild-type or mutant spike proteins were exposed to an acidic pH and polykaryon formation was measured. No fusion activity was observed in the C82S, dt, and G93D mutants; however, the wild type and the P104G mutant exhibited fusogenic activities, with greater than 60% and 20 to 40% of the cells being fused, respectively, at pH 4.8. These results suggest that it is likely that the region of E1 between amino acids 81 and 109 is involved in the membrane fusion activity of RV and that it may be important for the interaction of that protein with E2 to form the E1-E2 heterodimer.     

Proteolytic Cleavage of Opa1 Stimulates Mitochondrial Inner Membrane Fusion and Couples Fusion to Oxidative Phosphorylation

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Membrane Tethering and Nucleotide-dependent Conformational Changes Drive Mitochondrial Genome Maintenance (Mgm1) Protein-mediated Membrane Fusion

Cellular membrane remodeling events such as mitochondrial dynamics, vesicle budding, and cell division rely on the large GTPases of the dynamin superfamily. Dynamins have long been characterized as fission molecules; however, how they mediate membrane fusion is largely unknown. Here we have characterized by cryo-electron microscopy and in vitro liposome fusion assays how the mitochondrial dynamin Mgm1 may mediate membrane fusion. Using cryo-EM, we first demonstrate that the Mgm1 complex is able to tether opposing membranes to a gap of ∼15 nm, the size of mitochondrial cristae folds. We further show that the Mgm1 oligomer undergoes a dramatic GTP-dependent conformational change suggesting that s-Mgm1 interactions could overcome repelling forces at fusion sites and that ultrastructural changes could promote the fusion of opposing membranes. Together our findings provide mechanistic details of the two known in vivo functions of Mgm1, membrane fusion and cristae maintenance, and more generally shed light onto how dynamins may function as fusion proteins.     

Enhanced Expression and Purification of Membrane Proteins by SUMO Fusion in Escherichia coli

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) membrane protein and 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP) are among a large number of membrane proteins that are poorly expressed when traditional expression systems and methods are employed. Therefore to efficiently express difficult membrane proteins, molecular biologists will have to develop novel or innovative expression systems. To this end, we have expressed the SARS-CoV M and FLAP proteins in Escherichia coli by utilizing a novel gene fusion expression system that takes advantage of the natural chaperoning properties of the SUMO (small ubiquitin-related modifier) tag. These chaperoning properties facilitate proper protein folding, which enhances the solubility and biological activity of the purified protein. In addition to these advantages, we found that SUMO Protease 1, can cleave the SUMO fusion high specificity to generate native protein. Herein, we demonstrate that the expression of FLAP and SARS-CoV membrane proteins are greatly enhanced by SUMO fusions in E. coli.     

Tin Oxide Nanowires Suppress Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Entry and Cell-to-Cell Membrane Fusion

The advent of nanotechnology has ushered in the use of modified nanoparticles as potential antiviral agents against diseases such as herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1) (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), monkeypox virus, and hepatitis B virus. Here we describe the application of tin oxide (SnO₂) nanowires as an effective treatment against HSV-1 infection. SnO₂ nanowires work as a carrier of negatively charged structures that compete with HSV-1 attachment to cell bound heparan sulfate (HS), therefore inhibiting entry and subsequent cell-to-cell spread. This promising new approach can be developed into a novel form of broad-spectrum antiviral therapy especially since HS has been shown to serve as a cellular co-receptor for a number of other viruses as well, including the respiratory syncytial virus, adeno-associated virus type 2, and human papilloma virus.     

禽副粘病毒-2 膜融合相关多肽基因的构建与表达

囊膜病毒与宿主细胞的膜融合是病毒入侵宿主细胞的第一步 . 禽副粘病毒 -2 (APMV-2) 囊膜表面糖蛋白有 2 种,与宿主受体结合的血凝素神经氨酸酶 (HN) 及介导膜融合的融合糖蛋白 (F). HN 蛋白的茎部区域 (stalk region) 与球状头部区域 (globular head region) ,以及 F 蛋白的 3 段七肽重复区域 (heptad repeat , HR) 都可能与膜融合直接相关,将 5 段多肽进行基因的构建与表达研究 . 根据已发表的禽副粘病毒 -1 (APMV-1) 氨基酸序列,应用 BLAST 程序进行同源性分析,以确定 APMV-2 相应区域,使用搭桥 PCR 或普通 PCR 方法构建基因,分别克隆入表达载体 pGEX-6p- Ⅰ获得重组质粒,阳性重组质粒转化入大肠杆菌 BL21 (DE₃) ,表达后获得可溶性融合蛋白, 3C 蛋白酶酶切后的蛋白质混合物经 Glutathione-Sepharose 4B 亲和层析纯化,最终获得可溶性、高纯度的 5 段多肽 . 应用 LearnCoil-VMF 软件与 ExPASy 系列软件对蛋白质结构与功能进行预测与分析 . 分子筛实验结果表明, F 蛋白的 HR1 与 HR2 可形成六聚体结构,圆二色谱实验结果则表明,六聚体蛋白富含 α 琢螺旋结构 .