Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 Tat function by transdominant Tat protein localized to both the nucleus and cytoplasm.

We introduced various mutations into the activation and RNA binding domains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat in order to develop a novel and potent transdominant Tat protein and to characterize its mechanism of action. The different mutant Tat proteins were characterized for their abilities to activate the HIV LTR and inhibit the function of wild-type Tat in trans. A Tat protein containing a deletion of the basic domain (Tat(delta)49-57) localized exclusively to the cytoplasm of transfected human cells was nonfunctional and inhibited both HIV-1 and HIV-2 Tat function in a transdominant manner. Tat proteins containing mutations in the cysteine-rich and core domains were nonfunctional but failed to inhibit Tat function in trans. When Tat nuclear or nucleolar localization signals were fused to the carboxy terminus of Tat(delta)49-57, the chimeric proteins localized to the nucleus or nucleolus, respectively, and remained capable of acting in a transdominant manner. Introduction of secondary mutations in the cysteine-rich and core domains of the various transdominant Tat proteins completely eliminated their abilities to act in a transdominant fashion. Our data best support a mechanism in which these transdominant Tat proteins squelch a cellular factor or factors that interact with the Tat activation domain and are required for Tat to function.     

Restoration of cell surface CD4 expression in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells by treatment with a Tat antagonist.

Productive infection of T lymphocytes with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is accompanied by a diminution of surface CD4 receptors. Treatment of chronically HIV-1-infected CD4-negative T cells in vitro with the Tat antagonist Ro 5-3335 resulted in a drug dose-dependent decrease in virus protein production and a reciprocal increase in surface CD4 display. The drug-treated cells remained viable, showed significantly reduced levels of the full-length and spliced HIV-1 mRNAs as detected by Northern (RNA) blot hybridization, and maintained integrated HIV-1 DNA. In immunoprecipitation studies with drug-treated cells, the levels of free 55-kDa CD4 protein increased and gp160 complexed with CD4 decreased in amount. These results show for the first time that certain cytopathogenic effects of chronic HIV-1 infection can be reversed by suppressing virus expression.     

Virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected chimpanzees.

Chimpanzees have been important in studies of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis and in evaluation of HIV-1 candidate vaccines. However, little information is available about HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in these animals. In the present study, in vitro stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from infected chimpanzees with HIV-1 Gag peptides was shown to be a sensitive, reproducible method of expanding HIV-1-specific CD8(+) effector CTL. Of interest, PBMC from two chimpanzees had CTL activity against Gag epitopes also recognized by major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted CTL from HIV-1-infected humans. The use of peptide stimulation will help to clarify the role of CTL in vaccine-mediated protection and HIV-1 disease progression in this important animal model.     

Structural analysis of wild-type and mutant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat proteins.

We expressed the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transactivator protein, Tat, in the wheat germ cell-free translation system and found it to exist as a monomer. The first coding exon (residues 1 to 72) of wheat germ-expressed Tat was resistant to trypsin digestion, indicating that it is a highly folded, independently structured protein domain. Several mutant Tat proteins were dramatically more sensitive to trypsin than the wild type was, suggesting that their reduced transactivation activities are the result of destabilized structures. Mutant proteins with single-amino-acid substitutions were also identified that had reduced transactivation activities but wild-type structures in the trypsin assay. These mutants clustered in two regions of Tat, at acidic residues 2 and 5 in the amino terminus and between residues 18 and 32. These mutants, wild type in structure but reduced in activity, identify residues in the wild-type protein that may directly contact other molecules during Tat function.     

Efficient propagation of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-type JC virus in COS-7-derived cell lines stably expressing Tat protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1

The high incidence of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in AIDS patients compared with many other immunosuppressive diseases suggests that HIV-1 infection is strictly related to the activation of JC virus (JCV) propagation. In this report, propagation of PML-type JCV in COS-7-derived cell lines stably expressing HIV-1 Tat (COS-tat cells) has been examined. In COS-tat cells, production of viral particles and replication of genomic DNA were markedly increased compared to COS-7 cells, as judged by HA and real-time PCR analyses. These results demonstrate that COS-tat cells provide a useful model system for studying HIV-1 Tat-mediated propagation of PML-type JCV.     

Increased spacing between Sp1 and TATAA renders human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication defective: implication for Tat function.

Expression of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is strongly activated by Tat. The proper action of Tat requires three elements: TATAA, TAR, and upstream motifs in the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. We show here that the correct spatial arrangement among Tat, Sp1, and TATAA crucially influences HIV expression. Under conditions in which basal promoter activity is unperturbed, distancing Sp1 from TATAA markedly affected Tat trans activation. An increase in the Sp1-TATAA distance from 18 to 101 nucleotides (depending on the inserted sequence) rendered HIV-1 either partially or wholly replication defective. This critical dependence on spacing suggests that Tat-, Sp1-, and TATAA-binding factors must correctly contact each other for optimal expression and replication of HIV-1.     

TAR RNA binding properties and relative transactivation activities of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 Tat proteins.

Using gel shift assays, we found that the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat protein (Tat-1) bound both HIV-1 and HIV-2 TAR RNAs with similar high affinities. In contrast, the HIV-2 Tat protein (Tat-2) bound only TAR-2 RNA with high affinity. We conclude that the weak in vivo activity of Tat-2 on the HIV-1 long terminal repeat that has been observed previously is likely the result of low affinity for TAR-1 RNA. Additionally, TAR-2 RNA was found to contain multiple specific binding sites for Tat proteins. GAL4-Tat fusion proteins were analyzed to compare the relative transactivation activities of Tat-1 and Tat-2 in the absence of requirements for binding to TAR RNAs. The GAL4-Tat-2 protein was found to transactivate synthetic promoters containing GAL4 binding sites at levels severalfold higher than did the GAL4-Tat-1 protein.     

Defective accessory genes in a human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected long-term survivor lacking recoverable virus.

We have been studying a patient who acquired human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection via a blood transfusion 13 years ago. She has remained asymptomatic since that time. The blood donor and two other recipients have all died of AIDS. Although this patient has shown persistently strong seroreactivity to HIV type 1 (HIV-1) antigens by Western blot (immunoblot), she has been continually HIV culture negative in results from multiple laboratories over the last 6 years and has a very low viral burden. Her CD4+ T-cell count has fluctuated around a mean of 399 cells per microliters, with little change in lymphocyte subset percentages. Strong cellular immune responses to HIV-1 epitopes by this patient have been demonstrated. We now report the results of an intensive molecular genetic analysis of the HIV-1 proviral quasispecies from this patient sampled over 5 years. Long terminal repeat region sequences supported the argument for normal basal and Tat-mediated promoter activities. Sequential sequencing of the nef gene revealed a low frequency (8.3%) of defective genes and a striking lack of sequence evolution. Functional analysis of predominant nef genes by both a cell surface CD4 downregulation and a viral infectivity complementation assay showed wild-type function. In contrast, sequential analysis of an amplicon containing the vif, vpr, vpu, tat1, and rev1 genes revealed the presence of inactivating mutations in 64% of the clones. These data suggest that this patient, initially infected with a virulent swarm of HIV-1, is presently infected with a more-attenuated viral quasispecies as a result of effective host immunity.     

Identification of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat epitope that is neuroexcitatory and neurotoxic.

Tat is an 86- to 104-amino-acid viral protein that activates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 expression, modifies several cellular functions, and causes neurotoxicity. Here, we determined the extent to which peptide fragments of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 BRU Tat1-86 produced neurotoxicity, increased levels of intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i), and affected neuronal excitability. Tat31-61 but not Tat48-85 dose dependently increased cytotoxicity and levels of [Ca2+]i in cultured human fetal brain cells. Similarly, Tat31-61 but not Tat48-85 depolarized rat hippocampal CA1 neurons in slices of rat brain. The neurotoxicity and increases in [Ca2+]i could be significantly inhibited by non-N-methyl-D-aspartate excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists. Shorter 15-mer peptides which overlapped by 10 amino acids each and which represented the entire sequence of Tat1-86 failed to produce any measurable neurotoxicity. Although it remains to be determined if Tat acts directly on neurons and/or indirectly via glial cells, these findings do suggest that Tat neurotoxicity is conformationally dependent, that the active site resides within the first exon of Tat between residues 31 to 61, and that these effects are mediated at least in part by excitatory amino acid receptors.     

Cross-neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 and simian immunodeficiency virus isolates.

In contrast to infrequent and low-titer cross-neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) isolates by HIV-2- and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-positive sera, extensive cross-neutralization of HIV-2NIH-Z, SIVMAC251, and SIVAGM208K occurs with high titer, suggesting conservation of epitopes and mechanism(s) of neutralization. The V3 regions of HIV-2 and SIV isolates, minimally related to the HIV-1 homolog, share significant sequence homology and are immunogenic in monkeys as well as in humans. Whereas the crown of the V3 loop is cross-reactive among HIV-1 isolates and elicits neutralizing antibodies of broad specificity, the SIV and especially HIV-2 crown peptides were not well recognized by cross-neutralizing antisera. V3 loop peptides of HIV-2 isolates did not elicit neutralizing antibodies in mice, guinea pigs, or a goat and together with SIV V3 peptides did not inhibit serum neutralization of HIV-2 and SIV. Thus, the V3 loops of HIV-2 and SIV do not appear to constitute simple linear neutralizing epitopes. In view of the immunogenicity of V3 peptides, the failure of conserved crown peptides to react with natural sera implies a significant role of loop conformation in antibody recognition. Our studies suggest that in addition to their grouping by envelope genetic relatedness, HIV-2 and SIV are neutralized similarly to each other but differently from HIV-1. The use of linear peptides of HIV-2 and SIV as immunogens may require greater attention to microconformation, and alternate subunit approaches may be needed in exploiting these viruses as vaccine models. Such approaches may also be applicable to the HIV-1 system in which conformational epitopes, in addition to the V3 loop, participate in virus neutralization.