The hindlimb myology of Milvago chimango (Polyborinae,Falconidae)

We describe the hindlimb myology of Milvago chimango. This member of the Falconidae: Polyborinae is a generalist and opportunist that can jump and run down prey on the ground, unlike Falconinae that hunt birds in flight and kill them by striking with its talons. Due to differences in the locomotion habits between the subfamilies, we hypothesized differences in their hindlimb myology. Gross dissections showed that the myology of M. chimango is concordant with that described of other falconids, except for the following differences: the m. flexor cruris medialis has one belly with a longitudinal division; the m. iliotibialis lateralis does not have a connection with the m. iliofibularis; the m. fibularis longus is strongly aponeurotic; the m. tibialis cranialis lacks an accessory tendons and the m. flexor hallucis longus has one place of origin, instead of two. The presence of the m. flexor cruris lateralis can be distinguished as it has been described absent for the Falconidae. We associated its presence with the predominant terrestrial habit of the M. chimango. Each muscle dissected was weighed and the relationship between flexors and extensors at each joint was assessed. The extensor muscles predominated in all joints in M. chimango. Among the flexors, the m. flexor hallucis longus was the heaviest, which could be related to the importance of the use of its talons to obtain food. J. Morphol. 274:1191–1201, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Muscle architecture of the upper limb in the orangutan

We dissected the left upper limb of a female orangutan and systematically recorded muscle mass, fascicle length, and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), in order to quantitatively clarify the unique muscle architecture of the upper limb of the orangutan. Comparisons of the musculature of the dissected orangutan with corresponding published chimpanzee data demonstrated that in the orangutan, the elbow flexors, notably M. brachioradialis, tend to exhibit greater PCSAs. Moreover, the digital II-V flexors in the forearm, such as M. flexor digitorum superficialis and M. flexor digitorum profundus, tend to have smaller PCSA as a result of their relatively longer fascicles. Thus, in the orangutan, the elbow flexors demonstrate a higher potential for force production, whereas the forearm muscles allow a greater range of wrist joint mobility. The differences in the force-generating capacity in the upper limb muscles of the two species might reflect functional specialization of muscle architecture in the upper limb of the orangutan for living in arboreal environments.     

Maintenance of skeletal muscle energy homeostasis during prolonged wintertime fasting in the raccoon dog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis>)

The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) is a canid species with autumnal fattening and prolonged wintertime fasting. Nonpathological body weight cycling and the ability to tolerate food deficiency make this species a unique subject for studying physiological mechanisms in energy metabolism. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a cellular energy sensor regulating energy homeostasis. During acute fasting, AMPK promotes fatty acid oxidation and enhances glucose uptake. We evaluated the effects of prolonged fasting on muscle energy metabolism in farm-bred raccoon dogs. Total and phosphorylated AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), glucose transporter 4 (GLUT 4), insulin receptor and protein kinase B (Akt) protein expressions of hind limb muscles were determined by Western blot after 10 weeks of fasting. Plasma insulin, leptin, ghrelin, glucose and free fatty acid levels were measured, and muscle myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform composition analyzed. Fasting had no effects on AMPK phosphorylation, but total AMPK expression decreased in m. rectus femoris, m. tibialis anterior and m. extensor digitorum longus resulting in a higher phosphorylation ratio. Decreased total expression was also observed for ACC. Fasting did not influence GLUT 4, insulin receptor or Akt expression, but Akt phosphorylation was lower in m. flexor digitorum superficialis and m. extensor digitorum longus. Three MHC isoforms (I, IIa and IIx) were detected without differences in composition between the fasted and control animals. The studied muscles were resistant to prolonged fasting indicating that raccoon dogs have an effective molecular regulatory system for preserving skeletal muscle function during wintertime immobility and fasting.     

Nesting behavior and nest site selection in monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in the Pantanal of Brazil

We examined nesting behavior in monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in their native habitat in the Brazilian Pantanal. Unique among parrots, monk parakeets build communal nest structures that contain many cavities, each belonging to an individual pair. We studied 41 parakeet colonies that had 104 nest structures. We hypothesized that nest structures would be located in trees providing the greatest support and protection from predators and inclement weather, and that nest sites and nest cavities would differ from random locations with respect to tree characteristics, location of houses, and presence of jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria) nests, as suggested anecdotally by other authors. Fewer than half of the colonies were close (<350 m) to houses. There was a strong association with jabiru storks; 21 of 23 stork nests had monk parakeet nest cavities attached, accounting for 51% of parakeet colonies. Of the 21 jabiru-associated colonies, 6 had additional parakeet structures and 15 had only the jabiru-attached parakeet structure. Monk parakeet colonies associated with jabiru nests had significantly more nesting cavities than did monospecific monk parakeet colonies, due mainly to those attached directly to the jabiru nest. In jabiru-associated colonies, parakeet nest structures were located higher and in taller trees than in monospecific colonies. There was no difference in trunk diameters of parakeet nesting trees with or without jabirus. Although we tabulated 24 tree species as nest trees, nearest-neighbor trees, or matched-point trees, only 6 species were used for nesting. When compared to matched points, monk parakeet structures were preferentially located in piuva (Tabebuia spp.) and mandovi trees (Sterculia apetela). Parakeet structures were in taller trees with thicker trunk diameters than matched points. Most nest cavities (71%) faced in a northerly direction (northwest to northeast), away from cold southerly winds. Choice of a nest site and orientation appears to reflect structural, weather, and predator constraints. Thick, tall trees with stout branches provided stable sites for their large nest structures, which are known to collapse because of their own weight and strong winds. Nesting with jabirus confers structural advantages (they could attach many nests to the bottom of the jabiru nest, potentially gaining benefits from social facilitation), early warning, and predator defense.     

Fatigue effect on cross-talk in mechanomyography signals of extensor and flexor forearm muscles during maximal voluntary isometric contractions

Objective:This paper presents the analyses of the fatigue effect on the cross-talk in mechanomyography (MMG) signals of extensor and flexor forearm muscles during pre- and post-fatigue maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC).Methods:Twenty male participants performed repetitive submaximal (60% MVIC) grip muscle contractions to induce muscle fatigue and the results were analyzed during the pre- and post-fatigue MVIC. MMG signals were recorded on the extensor digitorum (ED), extensor carpi radialis longus (ECRL), flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) and flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscles. The cross-correlation coefficient was used to quantify the cross-talk values in forearm muscle pairs (MP1, MP2, MP3, MP4, MP5 and MP6). In addition, the MMG RMS and MMG MPF were calculated to determine force production and muscle fatigue level, respectively.Results:The fatigue effect significantly increased the cross-talk values in forearm muscle pairs except for MP2 and MP6. While the MMG RMS and MMG MPF significantly decreased (p<0.05) based on the examination of the mean differences from pre- and post-fatigue MVIC.Conclusion:The presented results can be used as a reference for further investigation of cross-talk on the fatigue assessment of extensor and flexor muscles’ mechanic.     

Patterns of hind limb motor output during walking in the salamander Dicamptodon tenebrosus,with comparisons to other tetrapods

Based on similarity of motor patterns of lizards, crocodiles, birds and mammals, various authors have concluded that a number of homologous muscles across these taxa demonstrate neuromuscular conservatism. This hypothesis remains untested for more basal taxa. Therefore, a quantitative electromyographic study of the hind limb during treadmill walking (mean speed of 0.75 SVL/s) in the salamander Dicamptodon tenebrosus was undertaken. Muscles located ventrally on the hind limb become active just before foot placement on the substrate, and maintain activity through the first half of the stance phase. Dorsally located muscles begin activity at or just before the start of the swing phase, and fire through the first half of swing. Several muscles showed a secondary EMG burst during the stride. The second burst in most ventral muscles occurred in late stance. In all dorsal muscles with double bursts, the second burst occurred in the middle of stance. Comparison of electromyographic onset and offset values for Dicamptodon to those for presumed homologues in other tetrapods reveals similarity in activity patterns for all ventral and two dorsal muscles despite anatomical rearrangements, supporting the hypothesis of neuromuscular conservatism for some muscles but not others.Abbreviations BF biceps femoris muscle - CDF caudofemoralis muscle - CPIT caudalipuboischiotibialis muscle - Dist distal - EDC extensor digitorum communis muscle - EMG electromyogram - EXF extensor cruris et tarsi fibularis muscle - EXT extensor cruris tibialis muscle - FMFB femorofibularis muscle - FPC flexor primordialis communis muscle - Gastroc gastrocnemius muscle - ILFB iliofibularis muscle - ILFM iliofemoralis muscle - ILTA extensor iliotibialis pars anterior muscle - ILTP extensor iliotibialis pars posterior muscle - ISC ischiocaudalis muscle - ISF ischioflexorius muscle - ISFM ischiofemoralis muscle - ITCR iliotrochantericus cranialis muscle - ITM iliotrochantericus medius muscle - MG medial gastrocnemius muscle - PFM pubifemoralis muscle - PIFE puboischiofemoralis externus muscle - PIFI puboischiofemoralis internus muscle - PIT puboischiotibialis muscle - Prox proximal - PTB pubotibialis muscle - Sol soleus muscle - ST semitendinosus muscle - SVL snout-vent length     

Mechanical similarity across ontogeny of digging muscles in an Australian marsupial (Isoodon fusciventer)

Many mammals dig, either during foraging to access subsurface food resources, or in creating burrows for shelter. Digging requires large forces produced by muscles and transmitted to the soil via the skeletal system; thus fossorial mammals tend to have characteristic modifications of the musculoskeletal system that reflect their digging ability. Bandicoots (Marsupialia: Peramelidae) scratch-dig mainly to source food, searching for subterranean food items including invertebrates, seeds, and fungi. They have musculoskeletal features for digging, including shortened, robust forelimb bones, large muscles, and enlarged muscle attachment areas. Here, we compared changes in the ontogenetic development of muscles associated with digging in the Quenda (Isoodon fusciventer). We measured muscle mass (m _m), pennation angle, and fiber length (FL) to calculate physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA; a proxy of maximum isometric force) as well as estimate the maximum isometric force (Fmax) for 34 individuals ranging in body size from 124 to 2,390 g. Males grow larger than females in this bandicoot species, however, we found negligible sex differences in mass-specific m _m, PCSA or FL for our sample. Majority of the forelimb muscles PCSA showed a positive allometric relationship with total body mass, while m _m and FL in the majority of forelimb muscles showed isometry. Mechanical similarity was tested, and two thirds of forelimb muscles maximum isometric forces (Fmax) scaled with isometry; therefore the forelimb is primarily mechanical similar throughout ontogeny. PCSA showed a significant difference between scaling slopes between main movers in the power stroke, and main movers of the recovery stroke of scratch-digging. This suggests that some forelimb muscles grow with positive allometry, specially these associated with the power stroke of digging. Intraspecific variation in PCSA is rarely considered in the literature, and thus this is an important study quantifying changes in muscle architectural properties with growth in a mammalian model of scratch-digging.     

Changes of agonist and synergist muscles activity during a sustained submaximal brake-pulling gesture

We analyzed the time course of changes in muscle activity of the prime mover and synergist muscles during a sustained brake-pulling action and investigated the relationship between muscle activity and braking force fluctuation (FF). Thirty-two participants performed a continuous fatiguing protocol (CFP) at 30% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) until failure. Surface electromyography was used to analyze root mean square (RMS) values in the flexor digitorum superficialis (FD), flexor carpi radialis (FC), extensor digitorum communis (ED), extensor carpi radialis (EC), brachioradialis (BR), biceps brachii (BB), and triceps brachii (TB). The FF and RMS in all muscles increased progressively (P<0.01) during the CFP, with sharp increments at time limit particularly in FD and FC (P<0.001). The RMS of the FD and FC were comparable to the baseline MVC values at time limit, in comparison to the other muscles that did not reach such levels of activity (P<0.003). The three flexor/extensor ratios used to measure coactivation levels decreased significantly (P<0.001). In contrast to RMS, MVC was still depressed at the minute 10 of recovery. The results suggest that the time limit was mainly constrained by fatigue-related mechanisms of the FD and FC but not by those of other synergist and antagonist muscles.     

Effects of fibre type and diffusion distance on mouse skeletal muscle glycogen content in vitro

In vitro incubation of isolated rodent skeletal muscle is a widely used procedure in metabolic research. One concern with this method is the development of an anoxic state during the incubation period that can cause muscle glycogen depletion. Our aim was to investigate whether in vitro incubation conditions influence glycogen concentration in glycolytic extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and oxidative soleus mouse muscle. Quantitative immunohistochemistry was applied to assess glycogen content in incubated skeletal muscle. Glycogen concentration was depleted, independent of insulin‐stimulation in the incubated skeletal muscle. The extent of glycogen depletion was correlated with the oxidative fibre distribution and with the induction of hypoxia‐induced‐factor‐1‐alpha. Insulin exposure partially prevented glycogen depletion in soleus, but not in EDL muscle, providing evidence that glucose diffusion is not a limiting step to maintain glycogen content. Our results provide evidence to suggest that the anoxic milieu and the intrinsic characteristics of the skeletal muscle fibre type play a major role in inducing glycogen depletion in during in vitro incubations. J. Cell. Biochem. 107: 1189–1197, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Establishment success of invasive ring‐necked and monk parakeets in Europe

Aim Invasive alien species are a growing threat to biodiversity, and identifying the mechanisms that enable these species to establish viable populations in their new environment is paramount for management of the problems they pose. Using an unusually large number of both failed and successful documented introductions of parakeets (Aves: Psittacidae) in Europe, we test two of the major hypotheses on the establishment success of invading species, namely the climate‐matching and the human‐activity hypothesis. Location European human population centres where ring‐necked parakeet (Psittacula krameri) and/or monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) introductions have occurred. Methods Data on ring‐necked and monk parakeet introductions in Europe were gathered from various sources, including published books and articles, but also from unpublished reports and local grey literature. Information was verified with experts from the region under consideration. In order to test the climate‐matching hypothesis, we verified whether the climatic factors that determine the parakeets’ native ranges also explain establishment success in Europe. Parakeet occurrence data from the native ranges were analysed using the presence‐only modelling method Maxent , and correlations between parakeet establishment and climatic and anthropogenic variables in Europe were assessed using both stepwise logistic regression and the information‐theoretic model selection approach. Results The establishment success of ring‐necked and monk parakeets was found to be positively associated with human population density, and, both in the native and in the introduced regions, parakeet occurrence was negatively correlated with the number of frost days. Thus, parakeets are more likely to establish in warmer and human‐dominated areas. Main conclusions The large number of independent parakeet introductions in Europe allows us to test the often‐used climate‐matching and human‐activity hypotheses at the species level. We show that both hypotheses offer insight into the invasion process of monk and ring‐necked parakeets. Our results suggest that, in the future, parakeet establishment probability may increase even further because global warming is likely to cause a decrease in the number of frost days and because urbanization and human populations are still increasing.     

Contractile responses in rat extensor digitorum longus muscles at different times of postnatal development

Some contractile properties of small bundles (100–200 m diameter) of muscle fibres isolated from the extensor digitorum longus muscle of rats at different times of development were compared. An increase of resting potential was observed in these muscles from-26.9 mV at 1 day of age to-72.6 mV at 3 months. Twitch tension and duration of postnatal muscles 1–7 days were diminished by reducing [Ca]_o (substituted by Mg²⁺) or adding inorganic cations (Ni²⁺, Cd²⁺, La³⁺), unlike in the oldest animals (14 days–3 months postnatal) where twitch responses were unaffected. In the latter, potentiation of the twitch tension was even recorded in the presence of Ni²⁺ (0.5–1 mmol·l^-1) and Cd²⁺ (0.5–2 mmol·l^-1). Properties of activation and inactivation of the developed tension following elevation of [K]_o to 15–200 mmol·l^-1 were analysed at the same stages of postnatal development. In contrast to the tension-membrane potential curves for activation, which presented an average negative shift of-17.6 mV between 1 day postnatal and 3 months of age, a voltage dependence of inactivation similar to that encountered in adult extensor digitorum longus muscles, was already reached at 7 days of age. These results suggest an asynchronism in the maturation of the potential-dependent characteristics of the depolarization-contraction coupling mechanism. Furthermore, during the first week postnatal, in relation with poorly developed membrane systems and low [Ca]_i-recycling capability, [Ca]_o plays a fundamental role in maintaining contraction by replenishing the intracellular calcium pool.Abbreviations ATPase adenosine triphosphatase - [Ca]_o ([K]_o) extracellular calcium (potassium) concentration - DC depolarization-contraction - EC excitation-contraction - e.d.l. muscle extensor digitorum longus muscle - E _m membrane potential - E _r resting potential - HEPES N-2 hydroxyethylpiperazine-N-2 ethanesulphonic acid - I _fast fast calcium current - sr sarcoplasmic reticulum - T-tubules transverse tubules     

Amylin evokes protein p20 phosphorylation and insulin resistance in rat skeletal muscle extensor digitorum longus

In the present study, we investigate effect of amylin on the insulin sensitivity of rat skeletal muscle extensor digitorum longus (EDL) using in vitro intact muscle incubation in combination with metabolic radioactive labeling. The molecular basis of the amylin action was further examined using proteomic analysis. In particular, proteins of interest were characterized using an integrated microcharacterization procedure that involved in-gel trypsin digestion, organic solvent extraction, high performance liquid chromatography separation, microsequencing and microsequence analysis. We found that amylin significantly decreased the insulin-stimulated glucose incorporation into glycogen (p < 0.01) and produced a protein spot of approximately 20 ku in size. This amylin responsive protein (hereby designated as amylin responsive protein 1, APR1) was identified to be protein p20. Moreover, ARP1 spots on gels were found to consistently produce a corresponding radioactive spot on X-ray films in ³²Pi but not in ³⁵S-methionine labeling experiments. In conclusion, our results showed that in vitro amylin concomitantly evoked the production of ARP1 and caused insulin resistance in EDL muscle. It is suggested that protein p20 may be involved in amylin signal transduction and the appearance of ARP1 may be a step in a molecular pathway leading to the development of insulin resistance. ARP1 might therefore be a useful molecular marker for amylin action, insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes.     

Caudal Musculature of the South Indian Flying Lizard Draco dussumieri Dum. and Bibr.

The modifications noticed in the caudal musculature of the South Indian Flying Lizard, Draco dussumieri, are described. The caudal musculature consists of the superficial ilio-caudalis and ischio-caudalis and the deeper ventral caudo-femoralis brevis and caudo-femoralis longus. There is an accessory tendon extending between the outer border of the tendon of the caudo-femoralis longus and the tendinous origin of the gastrocnemius. In the male the copulatory organ is provided with a retractor muscle. Attached to the ventral surface of the penis sheath is another muscle which helps in everting the penis. This latter muscle is present in the female also as a vestigeal one attached to the postero-lateral corners of the cloacal chamber. The modifications in the caudal musculature are attributable to the gliding habits of this lizard. Draco dussumieri, the South Indian Flying Lizard is unique in having a patagium for gliding from tree to tree. Associated with the development of the patagium, the musculature has undergone a number of adaptive modifications. The modifications of the trunk musculature have been published elsewhere (John 1970). The present communication is a study of the caudal musculature of this lizard.     

Avian-like tibiotarsi of pterodactyloids (Reptilia: Pterosauria) from the Upper Jurassic of East Africa

Tibiotarsi ofDsungaripterus?brancai (Reck) (Upper Jurassic, East Africa),D. weii Young (Lower Cretaceous, China) andPuntanipterus globosus Bonaparte & Sanchez (Lower Cretaceous, South America) have a bird-like distal end with attachment areas for a transverse ligament anteriorly, lateral and medial ligamentous prominences, and an anteroposteriorly, expanded pulley-like articular surface. The M. extensor digitorum longus flexed the ankle and probably also extended the digits as in living birds and mammals. A separate tendinous slip for digit I probably passed from the M. flexor digitorum longus in a groove posteroventral to the medial ligamentous prominence.     

Evidence for γ-actin as a Z disc component in skeletal myofibers

We investigated the targeting of the γ-actin isoform in skeletal myofibers. For this purpose we used expression vectors to produce green fluorescent protein (GFP-) as well as myc-tagged γ-actin in rat flexor digitorum brevis myofibers. We found that the γ-actin fusion proteins accumulated into Z discs but not beneath the sarcolemma. Instead, the GFP-tagged skeletal muscle-specific α-actin isoform was preferentially incorporated into the pointed ends of thin contractile filaments. The localization pattern of the γ-actin fusion proteins was completely different from that of the dystrophin glycoprotein complex on the sarcolemma. The results emphasize the role of γ-actin as a Z disc component but fail to reveal an actin-based sub-sarcolemmal cytoskeleton in skeletal muscle cells.     

Functional anatomy of the hand of Australopithecus africanus

The Sterkfontein hand bones, attributed to Australopithecus africanus, were analysed to determine potential hand function of the power grip type of this species. The metacarpus is as stable as that of modern humans, as indicated by the depth of the groove on the base of metacarpal 2, the styloid process of metacarpal 3, the base articular surface areas, and the ligament markings on the bases of the metacarpals. The flexion and rotation of metacarpal 5 might have been less than that of modern humans, due to a more marked ventral articular lip on the base. The metacarpus acts as a lever, acting in various planes. The extensor carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi radialis longus muscles were probably better developed than in modern humans. The extensor carpi radialis brevis and flexor carpi radialis muscles would probably have been as well developed as in modern humans. None of the long tendons have a mechanical disadvantage as compared to modern humans. The metacarpals have a high robusticity index. The proximal phalanges show some midshaft swelling, slightly greater curvature than in modern humans, and some side to side bowing: pongid features. The fibrous flexor sheath markings are well developed, but resemble those of modern humans rather than those of the pongids. A single middle phalanx resembles that of modern humans, and has well developed ridges for insertion of the flexor digitorum superficialis muscle. The distal phalanx of the thumb has a well developed region for insertion of the flexor pollicis longus muscle, and has a mechanical advantage over modern humans for action of this muscle at the interphalangeal joint. The features indicate that the hand of A. africanus was well adapted to powerful hand use, as in hammering, striking, chopping, scraping, and gouging actions, as well as for throwing and climbing activities.     

Estimation of instantaneous moment arms of lower-leg muscles

Muscle moment arms at the human knee and ankle were estimated from muscle length changes measured as a function of joint flexion angle in cadaver specimens. Nearly all lower-leg muscles were studied: extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, flexor hallucis longus, gastrocnemius lateralis, gastrocnemius medialis, peroneus brevis, peroneus longus, peroneus tertius, plantaris, soleus, tibialis anterior, and tibialis posterior. Noise in measured muscle length was filtered by means of quintic splines. Moment arms of the mm. gastrocnemii appear to be much more dependent on joint flexion angles than was generally assumed by other investigators. Some consequences for earlier analyses are mentioned.     

Forearm compartment syndrome: anatomical analysis of surgical approaches to the deep space

Forearm compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency that usually requires release of the superficial muscle compartments. In some clinical situations it is imperative to also explore the deep muscle compartments. There are no anatomical guides for surgical exploration of the deep compartments that would minimize collateral damage to surrounding vessels, nerves, and muscles. Surgical injury in the setting of ischemia, especially vascular injury, compounds the tissue damage that has already occurred. The authors evaluated four surgical approaches (three volar and one dorsal) to the deep forearm by performing detailed anatomical dissections on 10 embalmed and plastinated cadavers. They used a scoring system to rate the approaches for their ability to visualize the deep space without causing iatrogenic injury to superficial muscles, arteries, and nerves. In the volar forearm, an ulnar approach to the deep space is simple, causes the least iatrogenic surgical injury, and provides access to the deep volar forearm structures. The plane of dissection is between the flexor carpi ulnaris and the flexor digitorum superficialis. Dividing one or two distal segmental branches of the ulnar artery to the distal flexor digitorum superficialis exposes the pronator quadratus. Lifting the ulnar neurovascular bundle with the flexor digitorum superficialis in the middle third of the forearm exposes the flexor digitorum profundus and the flexor pollicis longus. This approach to the deep space requires no sharp dissection. In the dorsal forearm, a midline approach between the extensor digitorum communis and the extensor carpi radialis brevis is simple and safe.