Distribution of the Character States “Early Sympetaly” and “Late Sympetaly” Within the “Sympetalae Tetracyclicae” and Presumably Allied Groups*

Within the Asteridae (“Sympetalae Tetracyclicae”) two main developmental patterns can be distinguished as regards the formation of corolla tubes, namely “early” and “late sympetaly”. Since the character “ontogeny of sympetaly”, after intensive studies, proved to be valuable for systematic considerations, we now recognize two blocks of orders within the Asteridae (and related groups): the Asteridae A-block and the Asteridae B-block (Figs. 82 and 83). By and large this bipartition referring mainly to the corolla tube development corresponds well with major lineages indentified by recent molecular data (see, e.g., Chase et al., 1993). Asteridae A-block is characterized predominantely by “late sympetaly” the “early sympetaly” in Rubiales and Oleales can be interpreted as derived within this block or can be linked with that in Asteridae B-block. Asteridae B-block is uniform throughout in its “early sympetaly”. In this block it is a primitive character, as judged from its occasional occurrence in the choripetalous Cornales and Apiales (Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Pittosporaceae), which can be regarded as ancestral for block B.     

SYMBIODINIUM NATANS SP. NOV.: A “FREE‐LIVING” DINOFLAGELLATE FROM TENERIFE (NORTHEAST‐ATLANTIC OCEAN)1

We examined a free‐living Symbiodinium species by light and electron microscopy and nuclear‐encoded partial LSU rDNA sequence data. The strain was isolated from a net plankton sample collected in near‐shore waters at Tenerife, the Canary Islands. Comparing the thecal plate tabulation of the free‐living Symbiodinium to that of S. microadriaticum Freud., it became clear that a few but significant differences could be noted. The isolate possessed two rather than three antapical plates, six rather than seven to eight postcingular plates, and finally four rather than five apical plates. The electron microscopic study also revealed the presence of an eyespot with brick‐shaped contents in the sulcal region and a narrow anterior plate with small knob‐like structures. Bayesian analysis revealed the free‐living Symbiodinium to be a member of the earliest diverging clade A. However, it did not group within subclade A_I (=temperate A) or any other subclades within clade A. Rather, it occupied an isolated position, and this was also supported by sequence divergence estimates. On the basis of comparative analysis of the thecal plate tabulation and the inferred phylogeny, we propose that the Symbiodinium isolate from Tenerife is a new species (viz. S. natans). To elucidate further the species diversity of Symbiodinium, particularly those inhabiting coral reefs, we suggest combining morphological features of the thecal plate pattern with gene sequence data. Indeed, future examination of motile stages originating from symbiont isolates will demonstrate if this proves a feasible way to identify and characterize additional species of Symbiodinium and thus match ribotypes or clusters of ribotypes to species.     

“How” and “what” matters: Sampling method affects biodiversity estimates of reef fishes

Understanding changes in biodiversity requires the implementation of monitoring programs encompassing different dimensions of biodiversity through varying sampling techniques. In this work, fish assemblages associated with the “outer” and “inner” sides of four marinas, two at the Canary Islands and two at southern Portugal, were investigated using three complementary sampling techniques: underwater visual censuses (UVCs), baited cameras (BCs), and fish traps (FTs). We firstly investigated the complementarity of these sampling methods to describe species composition. Then, we investigated differences in taxonomic (TD), phylogenetic (PD) and functional diversity (FD) between sides of the marinas according to each sampling method. Finally, we explored the applicability/reproducibility of each sampling technique to characterize fish assemblages according to these metrics of diversity. UVCs and BCs provided complementary information, in terms of the number and abundances of species, while FTs sampled a particular assemblage. Patterns of TD, PD, and FD between sides of the marinas varied depending on the sampling method. UVC was the most cost‐efficient technique, in terms of personnel hours, and it is recommended for local studies. However, for large‐scale studies, BCs are recommended, as it covers greater spatio‐temporal scales by a lower cost. Our study highlights the need to implement complementary sampling techniques to monitor ecological change, at various dimensions of biodiversity. The results presented here will be useful for optimizing future monitoring programs.     

The nature and affinities of the “robust” Australopithecines: a review

The fossil evidence of the “robust” australopithecines is reviewed with an emphasis on the taxonomic divisions and evolutionary relationships among this group of hominids. The hypodigms of A. robustus, A. crassidens and A. boisei are described, and the significance of morphological variation within and between these species is assessed. Phylogenetic relationships among the “robust” australopithecines are examined using maximum parsimony analysis, and evolutionary scenarios are evaluated in the light of recent discoveries in East Africa.     

“Capacity”, “best interests”, “will and preferences” and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

The United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) is the most up‐to‐date international legal instrument concerning the rights of persons with disabilities. Such persons are taken to include those with serious mental disorders. According to an authoritative interpretation of a crucial Article (Article 12 ‐ Equal recognition before the law) by the UN CRPD Committee, involuntary detention and treatment of people with mental health disabilities are prohibited under the Convention. Both conventional mental health law and “capacity‐based” law are deemed to violate the Convention. However, some other UN bodies are not in full agreement (for example, the UN Human Rights Committee and the Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment), while others are less explicitly absolutist (for example, the Human Rights Council). Furthermore, strong criticisms of the position of the CRPD Committee have been mounted from a number of academic quarters. These criticisms center on whether the role of a person's ability to make a decision can be ignored, no matter the circumstances. Much of the above debate turns on the concept of “legal capacity” and the now often‐repeated precept that one must always respect the “will and preferences” of the person with a disability. However, “will and preferences” remains undefined. In this paper, I offer an analysis of “will and preferences” that can clarify interventions that may be acceptable or non‐acceptable under the terms of the UN Convention.     

“Prolonged grief disorder” and “persistent complex bereavement disorder”, but not “complicated grief”, are one and the same diagnostic entity: an analysis of data from the Yale Bereavement Study

There exists a general consensus that prolonged grief disorder (PGD), or some variant of PGD, represents a distinct mental disorder worthy of diagnosis and treatment. Nevertheless, confusion remains over whether different names and proposed symptom criteria for this disorder identify the same or different diagnostic entities. This study aimed to determine whether PGD, complicated grief (CG), and persistent complex bereavement disorder (PCBD) as described by the DSM‐5 are substantively or merely semantically different diagnostic entities. Data were derived from the Yale Bereavement Study, a longitudinal community‐based study of bereaved individuals funded by the US National Institute of Mental Health, designed explicitly to evaluate diagnostic criteria for disordered grief. The results suggested that the difference between PGD and PCBD is only semantic. The level of agreement between the original PGD test, a new version of the PGD test proposed for ICD‐11 and the PCBD test was high (pairwise kappa coefficients = 0.80‐0.84). Their estimates of rate of disorder in this community sample were similarly low (～10%). Their levels of diagnostic specificity were comparably high (95.0‐98.3%). Their predictive validity was comparable. In contrast, the test for CG had only moderate agreement with those for PGD and PCBD; its estimate of rate of disorder was three‐fold higher (～30%); its diagnostic specificity was poorer, and it had no predictive validity. We conclude that PGD, PCBD and proposed ICD‐11, but not CG, symptom‐diagnostic tests identify a single diagnostic entity. Ultimately, brief symptom‐diagnostic tests, such as the one proposed here for ICD‐11, may have the greatest clinical utility.     

Genesis and structure of the so-called “balbiani body” or “yolk nucleus” in the oocyte of dugesia dorotocephala (turbellaria,tricladida)

Oogenesis of the fresh-water triclad Dugesia dorotocephala has been studied by electron microscopical methods, with particular regard to the genesis and composition of the so-called “Balbiani body.” Its origin is clearly recognizable in young oocytes where the few mitochondria present seem to gather at the level of the perinuclear ooplasm. Here they surround dense masses of finely granular, fibrillar material probably coming from the nucleus. During the previtelloge ic period, mitochondria rapidly increase in number while the dense masses progressively dissolve. In the vitellogenic oocytes the Balbiani body shows its final configuration: it appears as a large area (up to 15-20 pm in diameter) consisting of innumerable densely packed mitochondria, some smooth vesicles and free ribosomes. This aggregate of cytoplasmic organelles remains unmodified in the mature oocytes. The function of the “Balbiani body” of D. dorotocephala is as yet unclear; it can only be asserted that it is not correlated with yolk production in which the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex are involved.     

Wild squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) “caregiver” calls: Contexts and acoustic structure

A field study of the vocal behavior of 22 wild adult female squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in Parque Nacional del Manu, Peru, found that 21% of vocalizations were “caregiver” calls. Caregiver calls are brief, low frequency calls, often with numerous harmonics, that are addressed by caregivers to their own infants in three contexts: 1) prenurse, signalling the caregiver's location and willingness to nurse; 2) nurse, while nursing; and 3) end nurse, indicating the end of the nursing bout. Three measures (start, end, and peak frequency) of the acoustic structure of the fundamental frequency of the caregiver calls significantly differed across the contexts. Duration of caregiver calls, however, was not distinguished by context. Compared to other primate taxa, the specificity and importance of caregiver calls in squirrel monkey vocal behavior appears unusual, if not unique. That S. sciureus caregiver calls are highly developed and employed so extensively probably follows from an unusual combination of ecological and life history factors. These factors include delayed weaning and large infant body size, high levels of indirect foraging competition which encourages spatial separation, susceptibility to predation, and specialization on a densely foliated, branch-end microhabitat in which visual contact is often impeded. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Beyond the “Code”: A Guide to the Description and Documentation of Biodiversity in Ciliated Protists (Alveolata,Ciliophora)

Recent advances in molecular technology have revolutionized research on all aspects of the biology of organisms, including ciliates, and created unprecedented opportunities for pursuing a more integrative approach to investigations of biodiversity. However, this goal is complicated by large gaps and inconsistencies that still exist in the foundation of basic information about biodiversity of ciliates. The present paper reviews issues relating to the taxonomy of ciliates and presents specific recommendations for best practice in the observation and documentation of their biodiversity. This effort stems from a workshop that explored ways to implement six Grand Challenges proposed by the International Research Coordination Network for Biodiversity of Ciliates (IRCN‐BC). As part of its commitment to strengthening the knowledge base that supports research on biodiversity of ciliates, the IRCN‐BC proposes to populate The Ciliate Guide, an online database, with biodiversity‐related data and metadata to create a resource that will facilitate accurate taxonomic identifications and promote sharing of data.     

Investigating the bifunctionality of cyclizing and “classical” 5‐aminolevulinate synthases

The precursor to all tetrapyrroles is 5‐aminolevulinic acid, which is made either via the condensation of glycine and succinyl‐CoA catalyzed by an ALA synthase (the C4 or Shemin pathway) or by a pathway that uses glutamyl‐tRNA as a precursor and involves other enzymes (the C5 pathway). Certain ALA synthases also catalyze the cyclization of ALA‐CoA to form 2‐amino‐3‐hydroxycyclopent‐2‐en‐1‐one. Organisms with synthases that possess this second activity nevertheless rely upon the C5 pathway to supply ALA for tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. The C₅N units are components of a variety of secondary metabolites. Here, we show that an ALA synthase used exclusively for tetrapyrrole biosynthesis is also capable of catalyzing the cyclization reaction, albeit at much lower efficiency than the dedicated cyclases. Two absolutely conserved serines present in all known ALA‐CoA cyclases are threonines in all known ALA synthases, suggesting they could be important in distinguishing the functions of these enzymes. We found that purified mutant proteins having single and double substitutions of the conserved residues are not improved in their respective alternate activities; rather, they are worse. Protein structural modeling and amino acid sequence alignments were explored within the context of what is known about the reaction mechanisms of these two different types of enzymes to consider what other features are important for the two activities.     

“Stepping-sticks” and “seat-sticks”: New types of tools used by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Sierra Leone

In Tenkere, Sierra Leone, a community of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) spent long hours eating the fruits and flowers of the Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) tree. The branches of this species are covered in sharp thorns which make movement in their high canopies problematic for the chimpanzees. In an apparent attempt to increase their mobility and to ease the discomfort of lengthy bouts of eating in these trees, some of the Tenkere chimpanzees have been observed using stick tools as foot (“stepping-sticks”) and body (“seat-sticks”) protection against the painful thorns. This form of tool-using is culturally unique to the Tenkere chimpanzees, as at other sites where these apes have been observed eating parts of kapok trees, there are no published records of this tool technology. In three of the stepping-stick tool use incidents, the chimpanzee used the tool(s), held between their greater and lesser toes, in locomotion. This form of tool use is the first recorded case of habitually used tools that can be justifiably categorized as being “worn” by any known wild population of Pan troglodytes. Am J Primatol 41:45–52, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Visualizing the “sandwich” structure of osteocytes in their native environment deep in bone in vivo

Osteocytes are the most abundant cells in bone and always the focus of bone research. They are embedded in the highly scattering mineralized bone matrix. Consequently, visualizing osteocytes deep in bone with subcellular resolution poses a major challenge for in vivo bone research. Here we overcome this challenge by demonstrating 3‐photon imaging of osteocytes through the intact mouse skull in vivo. Through broadband transmittance characterization, we establish that the excitation at the 1700‐nm window enables the highest optical transmittance through the skull. Using label‐free third‐harmonic generation (THG) imaging excited at this window, we visualize osteocytes through the whole 140‐μm mouse skull and 155 μm into the brain in vivo. By developing selective labeling technique for the interstitial space, we visualize the “sandwich” structure of osteocytes in their native environment. Our work provides novel imaging methodology for bone research in vivo.      

Integration of “Innate” and “Learned” Components within the IRME for Mussel Recognition in the European Bitterling Rhodeus amarus (Bloch)

The European bitterling (Rhodeus amarus Bloch) practises a rather unusual method of spawning by using the favorable conditions in the gills of a living freshwater mussel (genera Unio and Anodonta) for the embryonic development of its fry. The capacity of mussel recognition was studied in inexperienced individuals with the aid of simultaneous preference tests in which pairs of dummies with increasing similarity to mussels were presented to the animals. The frequency of mussel-referred motor patterns, which were supposed to be species-specific (Wiepkema 1961), supplied the evaluation criterion. The results revealed a hierarchy of effectiveness within the class of relevant stimuli and showed certain effects of additivity typical of an Innate Releasing Mechanism or IRM. By far the most effective stimulus consisted in the specific smell of the mussel which is composed of at least three constituents (protein, hyaluronic acid, ammonium). The water flow itself, produced by the mussel in order to maintain nutritive and respiratory functions, was effective depending on its velocity (3 < v < 12 cm/s), its orientation (suction produced no effect), its direction (vertical > horizontal) and the shape of its field (oval). Within the visual modality only two simple perceptory patterns could be detected (dark spot on a clearer surface, straight horizontal edge), but the visual shape of the mussel as a whole was ignored by inexperienced individuals. Nevertheless the bitterlings are able to learn the shape when exposed to a living mussel and, in addition, it was even possible to condition the animals to an artificial object (inverted pot of clay) by using the mussel-smell flow as a reinforcing stimulus. The final discussion deals with the question of whether it is possible to interpret these “innate” respectively “learned” components of the IRME as sensory counterparts of behavioral structures which simply serve different functions by referring to correspondingly different sectors of the environment. In such a case the epistemological dichotomy regularly associated with the notions of “innate” (= “pre-given phylogenetical knowledge”) and “learned” (= “cognitive increase during ontogeny”) would suffer incisive questioning.     

Spatial structure in the “Plastisphere”: Molecular resources for imaging microscopic communities on plastic marine debris

Plastic marine debris (PMD) affects spatial scales of life from microbes to whales. However, understanding interactions between plastic and microbes in the “Plastisphere”—the thin layer of life on the surface of PMD—has been technology‐limited. Research into microbe–microbe and microbe–substrate interactions requires knowledge of community phylogenetic composition but also tools to visualize spatial distributions of intact microbial biofilm communities. We developed a CLASI‐FISH (combinatorial labelling and spectral imaging – fluorescence in situ hybridization) method using confocal microscopy to study Plastisphere communities. We created a probe set consisting of three existing phylogenetic probes (targeting all Bacteria, Alpha‐, and Gammaproteobacteria) and four newly designed probes (targeting Bacteroidetes, Vibrionaceae, Rhodobacteraceae and Alteromonadaceae) labelled with a total of seven fluorophores and validated this probe set using pure cultures. Our nested probe set strategy increases confidence in taxonomic identification because targets are confirmed with two or more probes, reducing false positives. We simultaneously identified and visualized these taxa and their spatial distribution within the microbial biofilms on polyethylene samples in colonization time series experiments in coastal environments from three different biogeographical regions. Comparing the relative abundance of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing data with cell‐count abundance data retrieved from the microscope images of the same samples showed a good agreement in bacterial composition. Microbial communities were heterogeneous, with direct spatial relationships between bacteria, cyanobacteria and eukaryotes such as diatoms but also micro‐metazoa. Our research provides a valuable resource to investigate biofilm development, succession and associations between specific microscopic taxa at micrometre scales.     

Othenio Abel (1875–1946) and “the phylogeny of the parts”1

The reconstruction of the evolutionary history of animal phyla was an integral part of Othenio Abel’s paleobiology (paleozoology). Abel took issue with those phylogeneticists who, following the lead of Haeckel, would draw up phylogenetic trees on the basis of transformation series of singular characters considered to be of particular importance. Abel highlighted Louis Dollo’s principle of the chevauchement des spécialisations (crossing of specializations), which transformed phylogenetics from a search for ancestor–descendant sequences to research into relative degrees of relationships. This replacement resolved the conflict, much discussed at the time, between the continuity of ancestor–descendant lineages and the discontinuity inherent in the natural (phylogenetic) system. Walter Zimmermann refined Abel’s methodology, which he called character‐phylogenetics (Merkmalsphylogenie), an approach that was eventually adopted by Willi Hennig.     

Ultrastructure of the “pigment knob” of Pleuromamma spp. (Copepoda: Calanoida)

The calanoid copepod genus Pleuromamma is easily distinguished from all other copepods by the presence of a rounded, dark-red cuticular structure ( = pigment knob) that protrudes from the left or right side of the second thoracic segment in both sexes. The present study of the pigment knob reveals a complex ultrastructure consisting of various cell types within three distinct areas that are bathed by hemolymph from the lateral sinus. The knob is covered by a greatly expanded cuticle through which a pore passes. The pore appears to connect with a centrally positioned pigment cell containing a large mass of darkly staining granules. This suggests that the knob may have a secretory function. Observations of live animals and dissected pigment knobs, however, indicates that the knob does not secrete a luminescent material nor does it luminesce internally.     

Functional morphology of the palato‐maxillary apparatus in “Palatine dragging” snakes (Serpentes: Elapidae: Acanthophis,Oxyuranus)

Elapid snakes have previously been divided into two groups (palatine erectors and palatine draggers) based on the morphology and inferred movements of their palatine bone during prey transport (swallowing). We investigated the morphology and the functioning of the feeding apparatus of several palatine draggers (Acanthophis antarcticus, Oxyuranus scutellatus, Pseudechis australis) and compared them to published records of palatine erectors. We found that the palatine in draggers does not move as a straight extension of the pterygoid as originally proposed. The dragger palato‐pterygoid joint flexes laterally with maxillary rotation when the mouth opens and the jaw apparatus is protracted and slightly ventrally during mouth closing. In contrast, in palatine erectors, the palato‐pterygoid joint flexes ventrally during upper jaw protraction. In draggers, the anterior end of the palatine also projects rostrally during protraction, unlike the stability of the anterior end seen in erectors. Palatine draggers differ from palatine erectors in four structural features of the palatine and its relationships to surrounding elements. The function of the palato‐pterygoid bar in both draggers and erectors can be explained by a typical colubroid muscle contraction pattern, which acts on a set of core characters shared among all derived snakes. Although palatine dragging elapids share a fundamental design of the palato‐maxillary apparatus with all higher snakes, they provide yet another demonstration of minor structural modifications producing functional variants. J. Morphol. 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.