大型绿藻浒苔藻段及组织块的生长和发育特征

通过将浒苔叶状体分为基部、中部和顶端三部分分别进行切段和切碎处理,在实验室条件下,用液体浅层培养的方法,系统地研究了其组织和细胞的生长和发育特性。显微观察的结果显示：切段培养条件下,基部和中部的藻段均可在其形态学下端形成假根,在形态学上端产生类似叶状体的突起。藻段的发育具极性,但是其极性并不绝对的,在1.0 mm的基部藻段两端都观察到了假根的形成。虽然顶端的藻段和组织块全都形成和释放了孢子,未见明显的营养生长,但是在培养早期,其下端仍然具有形成假根的能力。浒苔各部位藻段和组织块释放的和滞留于孢子囊内的孢子都可以立即萌发成苗。快速生长的中基部藻段形成了气囊,致使其漂浮于培养基上。有很多藻段和组织块形成和释放了生殖细胞,释放到外界以及滞留于孢子囊内的孢子均可立即附着萌发。数据分析表明：藻段的生长具有极性,不同部位相同长度的藻段生长率差异明显,基部藻段的生长率高于中部藻段,顶部藻段无明显的营养生长。藻段的生长与其原始长度和在藻体中所处的位置有密切关系;藻段和组织块的再生与藻体的完整性及其在藻体中所处的位置有关。     

Phototropism of Thalli and Rhizoids Developed from the Thallus Segments of Bryopsis hypnoides Lamouroux

Newly regenerated thalli were used to study the phototropism of Bryopsis hypnoides Lamouroux under different qualities of light. Positive phototropism in the thalli and negative phototropiam In the rhizoida of B. hypnoides were investigated and analyzed in terms of bending. Both thaiii and rhlzoids developed from thallus segments exhibited typical tip growth, and their photoreceptive sites for phototroplam were also restricted to the apical hemisphere. The bending curvature of rhizoids and thalli were determined with unilateral lights at various wavelengths and different fluence rates after a fixed duration of Illumination. The trends of bending from the rhizoid and thallus were coincident, which showed that the action spectrum had a large range, from ultraviolet radiation （366.5 nm） to green light （524 nm）. Based on the bending curvatures, blue light had the highest efficiency, while the efficiency of longer wavelengths （〉500 nm） was significantly lower. External Ca^2＋ had no effect on the bending curvature of thalli and rhlzolda. Blue light （440 nm） induced thallus branching from rhizoids, while red light （650 nm） had no such effect. Fast-occurring chloroplast accumulation In the outermost cytoplasmic layer of the blue light （440 nm）-Irradiated region In the rhizoid was observed, from which protrusions （new thalli） arose after 4 h of the onset of illumination, and this action was thought to be driven by the dynamics of actin microfilamenta.     

Wind-acclimated thallus morphogenesis in a lichen (Evernia prunastri, Parmeliaceae) probably favored by grazing

How does the morphogenesis of a widespread epiphytic lichen interact with the environment, leading to amazingly polymorphic and wind-tolerant fruticose thalli? A series of photographs showed that the normal branches were basically even and flat with isotomic-dichotomous branchings. Numerous deviations from this basic regular pattern were found and traced back to their origins in the asymmetry of the branches’ cross sections. This was observed quantitatively (statistically testable) in the field, while the thalli were growing. This large variability in growth of single branches was a prerequisite for the polymorphism seen in complete thallus growth forms. The structure and distribution of the mentioned important asymmetries in branch cross sections can best be explained by the effect of grazing on cortex and phycobiont layer. Very small-scale growth observations and experimental simulation confirmed this. In thalli with many such small-scale variations in branch growth the overall thallus growth form became wind acclimated as a result of the selective effect of wind exposure on the thallus phenotype: branches growing windwardly grew more slowly. Such thalli were well protected from being dislodged by wind, and they desiccate slowly as demonstrated by a previous study.     

Crown alterations induced by decline: a study of relationships between growth rate and crown morphology in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.)

One of the first symptoms expressed by declining trees is reduced growth in stem diameter and length increment. The possibility of a relationship between length increment and crown thinning in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) was investigated by developing a computer model to simulate first order branching patterns of the apical 2 m of monopodially branching beech trees, 70–100 years old, for a range of length increment rates. The model was based on values for branching angle, main axis and branch length increment, number of branches produced per year and branch mortality rates for six healthy and declining trees. Shoot growth rates in the apical 2 m of the sample trees ranged from about 5 cm/year (decline class 3) to 43 cm/ year (healthy). Simulations of branching patterns in the apical 2 m of trees growing at different rates indicated that, when growth rate exceeded about 20 cm/year, total first order branch length and area explored were independent of growth rate. When growth rates fell below this value there was a reduction in total area explored and first order branch length due primarily to the formation of fewer branches. More acute branching angles contributed to a reduction in the area explored. Growth rate-related crown thinning could increase the risk of bark necrosis and secondary pathogen infection during dry and/or hot spells.     

Content of Gibberellic Acid in Apical Parts of Male and Female Thalli of Chara Tomentosa in Relation to the Content of Sugars and Dry Mass

The contents of gibberellic acid (GA₃), glucose and starch, and dry mass in four nodes of apical parts of male and female thalli of Chara tomentosa were measured. The GA₃ concentration was about 4 times higher in male than in female thallus and about 10 times higher in the first node than in the next three nodes of both thalli. The apical part of male thallus contains 2.5 times less glucose and 1.7 times less starch than female one. The average amount of dry mass of male and female thallus was similar: 9.9 and 9.8 % of fresh mass. The findings of this investigation demonstrate the interdependence of gibberellic acid and sugars in development of male and female Chara tomentosa thalli.     

The Structure and Development of the Thallus in the British Species of Gelidium and Pterocladia

The apical structure and the development of the thalli of allthe British species of Gelidium and Pterocladia have been investigated;the development of G. pulchellum is described in detail. Eachaxis is terminated by one or more apical cells, which by theirsegmentation form the tissues of the thallus. An axial filamentis distinct for a short distance behind each apical cell, butsecondary pit-connexions develop rapidly so that in sectionthe mature axis has the appearance of a multi-axial structure. Lateral branches of the frond develop by the segmentation ofthe lateral branch apical cells, which are formed by the transformationof superficial cortical cells, either in the meristematic ormature parts of the axes. The extreme variability of externalappearance is due principally to the indeterminate origin ofall lateral branches. The thallus in the British species of Gelidium and Pterocladiaconsists of erect fronds borne on creeping axes. The relativeproportions of the frond and creeping axes in various speciesand their survival through adverse conditions are discussed.     

Temporal variations of vegetative features, sex ratios and reproductive phenology in a Dictyota dichotoma (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) population of Argentina

This paper addresses the phenology of a Dictyota dichotoma population from the North Patagonian coasts of Argentina. The morphology of the individuals was characterized, and analyses of the temporal variations of vegetative features, diploid and haploid life cycle generations and sex ratios are provided. Individuals, represented by growing sporophytes and gametophytes, occurred simultaneously throughout the year. Morphological variables showed temporal variation, except the width and height of medullary cells, which did not vary between seasons. All vegetative variables were significantly correlated with daylength. Besides, frond length, frond dry mass and apical and basal branching angles were significantly correlated with seawater temperatures. Vegetative thalli were less abundant than haploid and diploid thalli. Sporophytes were less abundant than male and female gametophytes. Male gametophytes dominated in May, August, October and January, and female gametophytes were more abundant in September, November, December, February and March. The formation of female gametangia showed a significant correlation with daylength, and the highest number of gametangia was registered in spring. In general, the male/female sex ratio varied between 1:2 and 1:1. Apical regions were more fertile than basal regions. Our data about frequency in the formation of reproductive structures and male/female ratios are the first recorded in the Dictyota genus and thus could not be compared with populations from other regions of the world. Significant morphological variation was observed in thalli of both life cycle generations, regarding length and dry mass, number of primary branches and branching basal angle. In general, all variables analyzed varied seasonally except cortical cell width.     

Compensation of the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida (Laminariales; Phaeophyta) after thallus excision under cultivation in Matsushima Bay, northern Japan

In recent years, the crop yield of cultivated Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar has not been able to meet commercial demand and so advances in cultivation technology are strongly needed to increase production. Interestingly, cultivation work has shown the yield of U. pinnatifida sporophytes may be increased significantly by thallus excision, which may cause compensatory growth of the remaining tissues. To test this hypothesis and clarify correlative mechanisms, we examined seasonal morphological characteristics, photosynthetic rates, nutrient uptake rates, and carbon and nitrogen contents of U. pinnatifida sporophytes after thallus excision at a point 30 cm from the meristem in late February and compared these parameters with control kelps grown without excision, which were cultivated together in Matsushima Bay, northern Japan. Compared to control kelps, the length and dry weight of blades increased significantly after excision, and the growth phase was prolonged for about 1 month. The photosynthetic rates, nutrient uptake rates, and carbon and nitrogen contents of excised kelps were significantly higher than those of the controls. After vegetative growth stopped, resources accumulating in thalli were translocated significantly to sporophylls for maturation, indicating maturation was not negatively affected by thallus excision. These results indicate U. pinnatifida exhibits a very strong compensatory ability in response to thallus excision and consequently, the yield could be increased due to an increase in harvest frequency.     

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE EPIPHYTIC LICHENUSNEA LONGISSIMAIN A BOREALPICEA ABIESCANOPY

Usnea longissimawas sampled in SE Norway on six main branches of onePicea abies, comprising its full vertical canopy range. Nearly all specimens (n=781) were unattached and fragmented, in contrast with associated lichens. A combination of weak axes and lack of holdfasts resulted in a population of repeatedly displaced thalli, a similar situation as in ground-dwelling vagant lichens. Comparisons with a litterfall population indicated that thalli, regardless of size, had a similar probability to end as litter on the ground. Specimens were frequently sorediate, but only 12 small thalli with a basal holdfast had been directly recruited through soredial establishment. Its patchy distribution within apparently homogenous forest stands is probably a consequence of a rare successful long-range dispersal through soredia coupled with an abundant local dispersal of coarse thallus fragments. Old forests with ample, diffuse skylight at lower and humid canopy levels are probably essential to maintain a vagant epiphytic life form with a predominantly downward dispersal of thallus fragments.     

Branching responses in Silphium integrifolium (Asteraceae) following mechanical or gall damage to apical meristems and neighbor removal

Branching in plants increases plant access to light and provides pathways for regrowth following damage or loss of the apical meristem. We conducted two experiments in an eastern Kansas tallgrass prairie to determine how apical meristem loss (by clipping), apical meristem damage (by insect galling), and increased light availability affected growth, reproduction, and branching in Silphium integrifolium (Asteraceae). The first experiment compared clipping with galling. Clipping increased axillary shoot numbers, while galling increased axillary shoot lengths, reflecting different allocation responses among damage types and inhibition of branching by galls. However, total capitulum production was less in all gall/clip treatments than in intact shoots. The second experiment compared clipping with mowing the surrounding vegetation to increase light availability. Mowing increased total leaf, total capitulum, and axillary shoot length and axillary capitulum production in clipped and unclipped plants and in large vs. small shoots. The presence of the neighboring canopy, not of an intact apical meristem, was therefore the stronger limitation on leaf and capitulum production. These experiments suggest that damage and light competition affected both branching frequency and the partitioning of resources among shoots, branches, and leaves. Because Silphium's growth form is widespread, similar responses may occur in other grassland forbs.     

Extra- and intracellular measurements of action potentials in the liverwort Conocephalum conicum

Action potentials induced by electrical stimuli were recorded from the thalli of tfie liverwort, Conocephalum conicum L. An analysis of an equivalent circuit of Conocephalum conicum thallus in situ has shown that the multiphasic time course of extracellular recordings is caused by a branching of extracellular conduction layers and by an overlapping of action currents. As compared to the velocity of excitation propagation without short-circuiting, more than 10 times higher rates of action potential conduction have been recorded when the plants are immersed in a low resistaace solution. Furthermore, simultaneous extra- and intracellular recordings from thalli in situ are presented.     

Drag, drafting, and mechanical interactions in canopies of the red alga Chondrus crispus.

Dense algal canopies, which are common in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal along rocky coastlines, can alter flow-induced forces in their vicinity. Alteration of flow-induced forces on algal thalli may ameliorate risk of dislodgement and will affect important physiological processes, such as rates of photosynthesis. This study found that the force experienced by a thallus of the red alga Chondrus crispus (Stackhouse) at a given flow speed within a flow tank depended upon (1) the density of the canopy surrounding the thallus, (2) the position of the thallus within the canopy, and (3) the length of the stipe of the thallus relative to the height of the canopy. At all flow speeds, a solitary thallus experienced higher forces than a thallus with neighbors. A greater than 65% reduction in force occurred when the thallus drafted in the region of slower velocities that occurs in the wake region of even a single upstream neighbor, similar to the way racing bicyclists draft one behind the other. Mechanical interactions between thalli were important to forces experienced within canopies. A thallus on the upstream edge of a canopy experienced 6% less force than it did when solitary, because the canopy physically supported it. A thallus in the middle of a canopy experienced up to 83% less force than a solitary thallus, and forces decreased with increasing canopy density. Thus, a bushy morphology that increases drag on a solitary thallus may function to decrease forces experienced by that thallus when it is surrounded by a canopy, because that morphology increases physical support provided by neighbors.     

Growth and Dormancy in Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dum.: I. RESUMPTION OF GROWTH AND ITS CONTINUATION

Lunularia cruciata may become dormant at three stages in itslife history: mature thallus, gemma, and spore. The resumptionof growth and its continuation in various conditions have beenstudied in thalli and gemmae. Air-dry, mature thalli of theIsrael strain, planted on a suitable medium, produce adventitiousbranches ventrally from the region immediately posterior tothe existing meristem, which itself fails to resume growth.When dormant gemmae are taken from the gemma-cup, however, theexisting apical cells and meristems simply recommence growing,so that the new growth is continuous with the old. Except inthe case of mature thalli aroused from dormancy, apical dominanceis pronounced, and branching occurs only by bifurcation. Thisdominance can be broken by applying sucrose solution to thegrowing tips—possibly a plasmolytic effect. The growth in area of freshly planted gemmae accelerates forabout 25 days before its relative rate slows to any great extent.During the first half of this period, growth is due exclusivelyto the expansion of existing cells, but subsequently cell numbersincrease rapidly from the 8–10,000 present in the dormantgemma. Cell numbers were estimated by using a modified macerationtechnique, in which chelation followed prolonged fixation. Lunularia grows successfully at quite low light intensities.Of the mineral nutrient deficienccs investigated, lack of Plimits growth most severely, although N-deficiency also restrictsit to a very low level. Gemma-cup production appears to be unaffected by light intensity,at least within levels permitting growth. There is, however,a large temperature effect, cup production decreasing markedlyabove 12° C.     

Effect of gibberellin and kinetin on the regeneration ability ofFucus vesiculosus L.

The influence of gibberellic acid (GA³) and kinetin (6-furfurylaminopurine) on the regeneration ability of the basal and apical thallus fragments ofFucus vesiculosus L. was examined. The naturally occurring gibberellin and kinetin-like substances in these thallus fragments were also studied. It was found that exogenously applied GA³ markedly increased the number of adventitious branches formed on the cut surface of the thallus fragments taken from the apical parts of plants. The concentration of 0.001 mg GA³ I-1 proved to be the most effective. The growth promoting effect of GA³ was increased by simultaneous action with kinetin. In experiments in which the fragments of the basal parts of the thallus were treated with GA³, as a rule a slight growth inhibition was observed. The growth responses of the investigated plant tissues to gibberellin and kinetin varied according to season. Usually their susceptibility to the applied plant hormones was greater in spring than is summer. The shifts in growth reaction were related to the seasonal changes in the content of endogenous gibberellin and kinetin-like substances in the investigated parts of the thallus. It is suggested that growth regulators of the gibberellin and cytokinin type are involved in the regeneration processes inFucus.     

Cost of chemical defence in the red alga Delisea pulchra

The concept of a cost of defence is fundamental to theories for the evolution of defences against consumers. However, the evidence for a cost of plant chemical defences is mixed, and often indirect. This is particularly true for marine macroalgae (seaweeds), for which inferences of cost to date rely almost exclusively on phenotypic correlations between one class of secondary metabolites (brown algal phlorotannins) and growth (or, in one instance, fecundity). No studies of the cost of seaweed chemical defense have experimentally manipulated the presence of secondary metabolites in a controlled fashion and only one previous study has considered genetic background as a factor. Here we measured the cost of halogenated furanones to the red seaweed Delisea pulchra in three ways: a) phenotypic correlations between concentrations of furanones and fecundity in field collected thalli; b) genetic correlations between concentrations of furanones and growth for clones of thalli grown from tetraspores, and c) by comparing growth rates of thalli for which furanone production was experimentally inhibited (furanone -) vs thalli which produced furanones (furanone +). Two of our three tests-correlations between furanones and fecundity, and the growth of furanone (+) vs furanone (−) thalli-indicated a cost of furanones to D. pulchra but genetic correlations between furanones and growth did not. We suggest that these apparently conflicting results are consistent with the consequences of apical growth in this alga, and may further result from a cost of furanones only being manifested at critical developmental stages or times of tissue differentiation.     

DISPERSAL PATTERNS OF TERRICOLOUS LICHENS BY THALLUS FRAGMENTS

Dispersal patterns from seven terricolous lichen species, with a high capacity for asexual reproduction by fragmentation (Cetraria muricata, Cladonia species), were studied in differing vegetation types in north-eastern Germany. Marked lichen thalli were fragmented by trampling. After 15 days the spread of thallus fragments was monitored. Whereas most of the fragments that were dispersed by wind remained within a 20-cm radius from the source, the maximal dispersal distance was 57 cm in a dry sand grassland and 68 cm in an open pioneer pine forest. Dispersal was negligible in a closed old-growth pine forest. Several fragmented lichen cushions were disturbed and removed by animals, and led to a maximal dispersal distance of 9·70 m. These results suggest that: (a) thallus fragments provide good short-distance dispersal in open vegetation, but are inefficient for long-distance dispersal, and (b) wind and animals are important factors for the dispersal of thallus fragments. For restoration management of man-made substrata, artificial introduction of lichen thalli is proposed.     

Study of photosynthetic characteristics of the Pyropia yezoensis thallus during the cultivation process

The photosynthetic characteristics of thalli of cultured Pyropia yezoensis strains collected in January, February, and March in seaweed cultivation area of South China Yellow Sea were studied. Results showed that the maximum quantum efficiency (F _v/F _m) of all P. yezoensis thallus collected at different times was 0.65. The actual quantum efficiency (ΔF/F _m′) of samples in January was the lowest of all samples, while the ΔF/F _m′ of samples in March was significantly higher than those in January and February. The increase of temperature and photosynthetic pigments ratios of phycoerythrin and chlorophyll a (PE/Chla) and phycocyanin and chlorophyll a (PC/Chla) from January to March may be the important reasons for the increase in light use efficiency of thallus; although the thallus in March was significantly thicker than in January which may have reduced the light energy absorbed by photosynthetic pigments, the increase of relative high energy use efficiency also helped to maintain the photosynthetic oxygen evolution rate in March. The thicker thallus also reduced photodamage, and the thallus area was increased obviously in March, so the growth rate of thallus in March was over 35 % higher than that in February. Our research indicates that the photosynthetic characteristics of P. yezoensis strains thalli have a close relationship with their growth stage and environmental factors especially temperature, and those photosynthetic characteristics are also reflected in the growth rate of the thalli.     

Photoperiodic regulation of receptacle induction in Sargassum horneri (Phaeophyceae) using clonal thalli

We developed a clonal culture of Sargassum horneri to investigate the effect of photoperiod on reproduction in this species. Regenerated vegetative thalli were obtained using lateral branches excised from a thallus grown from a single embryo under short‐day conditions (SD = 10:14 h light : dark cycle). Lateral branches excised from the SD‐regenerated thallus became vegetative thalli that remained in that phase as long as they were cultured under SD. When an excised lateral branch was cultured under long‐day conditions (LD = 14:10 h light : dark cycle), it began to enter the reproductive phase while still less than 50 mm long. Induction of the reproductive phase was accompanied by a distinctive morphological change – suppression of blade formation at the apical region of the branch; elongation of branches without blades was then followed by differentiation of receptacles bearing conceptacles on their surface. Apices of receptacles were able to interconvert between reproductive and vegetative phases, as blades resprouted upon transfer from LD to SD. The critical day length for induction of receptacle formation was between 13 and 14 h; receptacle formation was also induced under SD conditions with night breaks (NBs). These results strongly suggest that reproductive regulation of S. horneri is a photoperiodic long‐day response. NBs with blue and green light were effective for reproductive induction but not with red light. This suggests that blue‐ and/or green‐light photoreceptors are involved in the photoperiodic reproductive response of S. horneri.     

Daylength and development in four species of Ceramiaceae (Rhodophyta)

Developmental patterns in four species of Ceramiaceae were determined using excised thallus apices grown under a range of light periods. Models of thallus development and organization based on these patterns are presented. Increased rates of apical cell division, greater growth of apical fragments and increased average cell size were found with increasing number of hours light per day between 8–16 and 16–8 h. No aspect of growth investigated was associated with photoperiodic phenomena, and growth occuring during the light break (8-7.5-1-7.5 h) was intermediate between that in 8–16 and 12–12 h. Three patterns of cell elongation were found in the four species in which (1) cell age, (2) cell age and position and (3) cell age, cell position and light period determined cell length at different axial cell positions. Elongation was followed within cells, along axes ofAntithamnion spirographidis for plants grown under different day lengths. Three regions of development were found along main axes: (1) an apical region in which basipetal expansion was greater than acropetal expansion. (2) a zone of stability with equal elongation in apical and basal growth region of cells, and (3) a basal region with greater acropetal expansion. With increasing daylength, the zone of stability was extended to greater ranges of cell length.     

Regenerative capacity of Gracilaria fragments: effects of size,reproductive state and position along the axis

Field farming of Gracilaria chilensis in Chile is mainly based on the regenerative capacity of thallus fragments. This study evaluates experimentally the effects on growth of the few organismic determinants that the farmer is capable of effectively handling in the field. No differences were found in the length increments of ramets with and without apices, a surprising result in view of the generally accepted idea that the most important growth meristem in this group of algae is located in the apex of the thallus. Total elongation and increase in weight of fragments with an initial length of up to 20 cm are a function of the initial length of the ramet, suggesting that intercalary growth makes a significant contribution to growth. Vegetative female axes grow faster, (in terms of length and weight) and produce more laterals than fertile female axes, and these faster than fertile tetrasporic branches. No differences in the growth of ramets originating from proximal or distal parts of axes were found. Paper presented at the XVth International Seaweed Symposium.