“Inflammatory” Cytokines

If cytokines are constitutively expressed by and act on neurons in normal adult brain, then we may have to modify our current view that they are predominantly inflammatory mediators. We critically reviewed the literature to determine whether we could find experimental basis for such a modification. We focused on two "proinflammatory" cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) because they have been most thoroughly investigated in shaping our current thinking. Evidence, although equivocal, indicates that the genes coding for these cytokines and their accessory proteins are expressed by neurons, in addition to glial cells, in normal brain. Their expression is region- and cell type-specific. Furthermore, bioactive cytokines have been extracted from various regions of normal brain. The cytokines' receptors selectively are present on all neural cell types, rendering them responsive to cytokine signaling. Blocking their action modifies multiple neural "housekeeping" functions. For example, blocking IL-1 or TNFalpha by several independent means alters regulation of sleep. This indicates that these cytokines likely modulate in the brain behavior of a normal organism. In addition, these cytokines are likely involved in synaptic plasticity, neural transmission, and Ca2+ signaling. Thus, the evidence strongly suggests that these cytokines perform neural functions in normal brain. We therefore propose that they should be thought of as neuromodulators in addition to inflammatory mediators.     

Various strategies for obtaining artificial hemoproteins: From “hemoabzymes” to “hemozymes”

The design of artificial hemoproteins that could lead to new biocatalysts for selective oxidation reactions of organic compounds presents a huge interest especially in pharmacology, both for a better understanding of the metabolic profile of drugs and for the synthesis of enantiomerically pure molecules that could be involved in the design of drugs.The present results show that the so-called “host-guest strategy” that involves the non-covalent incorporation of anionic water-soluble iron-porphyrins into xylanase A from Streptomyces lividans, a low cost protein, leads to such an artificial hemoprotein that is able to perform the stereoselective oxidation of sulfides.     

Evolution of Protein Targeting into “Complex” Plastids: The “Secretory Transport Hypothesis”

Abstract: In algae different types of plastids are known, which vary in pigment content and ultrastructure, providing an opportunity to study their evolutionary origin. One interesting feature is the number of envelope membranes surrounding the plastids. Red algae, green algae and glaucophytes have plastids with two membranes. They are thought to originate from a primary endocytobiosis event, a process in which a prokaryotic cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryotic host cell and transformed into a plastid. Several other algal groups, like euglenophytes and heterokont algae (diatoms, brown algae, etc.), have plastids with three or four surrounding membranes, respectively, probably reflecting the evolution of these organisms by so‐called secondary endocytobiosis, which is the uptake of a eukaryotic alga by a eukaryotic host cell. A prerequisite for the successful establishment of primary or secondary endocytobiosis must be the development of suitable protein targeting machineries to allow the transport of nucleus‐encoded plastid proteins across the various plastid envelope membranes. Here, we discuss the possible evolution of such protein transport systems. We propose that the secretory system of the respective host cell might have been the essential tool to establish protein transport into primary as well as into secondary plastids.     

Heterogeneous Single Atom Electrocatalysis,Where “Singles” Are “Married”

There is an intensive search for heterogeneous single atom catalysts (SACs) of high activity, efficiency, durability, and selectivity for a wide variety of electrocatalytic conversion and chemical reactions, such as the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution/reduction reaction (OER and ORR), CO₂ reduction reaction (CO₂ RR), and nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR). With the downsizing from nanoparticles and clusters to single atoms, there are steady changes in the bond and coordination environment for each and every atom involved. Indeed, the single atoms in these electrocatalysts are not “singles”; they are “married” to the supporting surfaces, and their performance is controlled by the bonding and coordination with the substrate surfaces. Herein, an overview is presented on the brief history leading to the rapid development of SACs and their current status, by focusing on their synthesis, control of composition, strategies to realize single atoms with the desired bonds and coordination, and targeted performance in selected reactions. Their applications in the selected spectrum of energy conversion and chemical reactions are discussed, in relation to their structures at varying length scales down to the atomic level. A particular emphasis is placed on on‐going research activities, together with the future perspectives and particular challenges for SACs.     

Tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” for gene therapy

In this review, we focus on strategies for designing functional nano gene carriers, as well as choosing therapeutic genes targeting the tumor microenvironment. Gene mutations have a great impact on the occurrence of cancer. Thus, gene therapy plays a major role in cancer therapy and has the potential to cure cancer. Well‐designed gene therapy largely relies on effective gene carriers, which can be divided into viral carriers and non‐viral carriers. A gene carrier delivers functional genes to their intracellular target and avoids nucleic acids being degraded by nucleases in the serum. Most conventional cancer gene therapies only target cancer cells and do not appear to be sufficintly efficient to pass clinical trials. Accumulating evidence has shown that extending the therapeutic strategies to the tumor microenvironment, rather than the tumor cell itself, can allow more options for achieving robust anti‐cancer efficiency. In addition, unusual features between tumor microenvironment and normal tissues, such as a lower pH, higher glutathione and reactive oxygen species concentrations, and overexpression of some enzymes, facilitate the design of smart stimuli‐responsive gene carriers regulated by the tumor microenvironment. These carriers interact with nucleic acids and then form stable nanoparticles under physiological conditions. By regulation of the tumor microenvironment, stimuli‐responsive gene carriers are able to change their properties and achieve high gene delivery efficiency. Considering the tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” when designing gene carriers and choosing therapeutic genes shows significant benefit with respect to improving the accuracy and efficiency of cancer gene therapy.     

Paleodemography: “Not quite dead”

As Kim Hill¹ recently noted in Evolutionary Anthropology, humans are unique among the hominoids with regard to the length of their lives, as well as other elements in the individual life histories. The evolutionary details that modified a basic pongid life history into a hominid one remain obscure, but aspects of recent human demographic history are assailable. Study of the last 10,000 years or so is an important part of ongoing anthropological discourse, for demographic changes may be intimately linked to such major developments as agriculture and urbanization.^2-8 Whether demographic changes are antecedents for or consequences of these major developments is a matter of great contention, but at the least we should attempt to document the nature of human demographic changes in the recent past. Although this documentation can take different forms, the principal sources are archeological information on past settlement patterns and analyses of prehistoric human skeletal material.     

“Laughter” and “Smile” in Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

In an observational study on semi-free Barbary macaques it was investigated whether the phylogenetic roots of human laughter and smile can be traced back to the genus Macaca. On the basis of morphological similarity a ‘relaxed open-mouth display’ as the phylogenetic precursor of the laughter, and a ‘silent bared-teeth display’ as the possible ancestor of the smile can be distinguished in the repertory of the Barbary macaque. Behavioural sequences from focal animal protocols were analyzed in order to establish message and meaning of both displays. Relaxed open-mouth display is regularly observed in the play interactions of juveniles. It is associated with partner-directed behaviour, it is frequently answered by a relaxed open-mouth display of the receiver, and accompanied by a special vocalization. Although up to 50% of the juvenile's play partners were higher ranking than themselves voluntary participation was the rule. Most characteristically, the behaviour patterns shown by both play partners are highly symmetrical and synchronized. Silent bared-teeth display is typically accompanied by evasive or submissive body movements, and occurs primarily in dyadic interactions, mainly by the lower ranking individual. It is not an unidirectional sign of a linear dominance hierarchy, though. Silent bared-teeth display is a frequent answer to aggressive behaviour shown by the receiver. After its performance, an increase of body contact between sender and receiver was observed. Behavioural sequences of senders and receivers are complementary, but lose their asymmetry after occurrence of the display. It is concluded that these results further support Van Hooff 's (1972) view that human laughter and smile have different phylogenetic roots: while silent bared-teeth display is a signal of submission and appeasement, relaxed open-mouth display is rightly called the ‘play face’, and is an expression of fun.     

“How” and “what” matters: Sampling method affects biodiversity estimates of reef fishes

Understanding changes in biodiversity requires the implementation of monitoring programs encompassing different dimensions of biodiversity through varying sampling techniques. In this work, fish assemblages associated with the “outer” and “inner” sides of four marinas, two at the Canary Islands and two at southern Portugal, were investigated using three complementary sampling techniques: underwater visual censuses (UVCs), baited cameras (BCs), and fish traps (FTs). We firstly investigated the complementarity of these sampling methods to describe species composition. Then, we investigated differences in taxonomic (TD), phylogenetic (PD) and functional diversity (FD) between sides of the marinas according to each sampling method. Finally, we explored the applicability/reproducibility of each sampling technique to characterize fish assemblages according to these metrics of diversity. UVCs and BCs provided complementary information, in terms of the number and abundances of species, while FTs sampled a particular assemblage. Patterns of TD, PD, and FD between sides of the marinas varied depending on the sampling method. UVC was the most cost‐efficient technique, in terms of personnel hours, and it is recommended for local studies. However, for large‐scale studies, BCs are recommended, as it covers greater spatio‐temporal scales by a lower cost. Our study highlights the need to implement complementary sampling techniques to monitor ecological change, at various dimensions of biodiversity. The results presented here will be useful for optimizing future monitoring programs.     

PAIRED PREFERENCE “PLACEBO” TESTS WITH “IDENTICAL” STIMULI: DOES INTRODUCING GRADED PREFERENCE RESPONSES AFFECT THE FREQUENCY OF “NO PREFERENCE” RESPONSES?

In the "placebo" control condition for paired preference testing, "identical" stimuli are presented to consumers to determine the frequency of preference and "no preference" responses induced by the hidden demand characteristics of the testing condition. As a control for bias, induced by such hidden demand characteristics, these frequencies can be compared with the actual preference frequencies of the nonidentical test stimuli to be assessed for preference. It was hypothesized that the introduction of graded preference response options might reduce the frequency of "no preference" responses in the placebo condition. Using identical yogurt stimuli with related-sample (single-group) and independent-sample (multigroup) designs, this hypothesis was not confirmed.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The "placebo" condition in paired preference testing provides a way to control the tendency of consumers to give false preference. The statistical analysis can be improved by finding a protocol that maximizes the proportion of "no preference" responses in the placebo condition. This can be done by increasing the number of response options that imply no preference. Yet, there is sometimes a desire to increase the number of preference options by using graded responses for preference strength. Does this alter the dynamics of the ever-important placebo condition by reducing the number of "no preference" responses? This project found that any effect was minimal.     

“Uncovering” Industrial Symbiosis

Since 1989, efforts to understand the nature of interfirm resource sharing in the form of industrial symbiosis and to replicate in a deliberate way what was largely self‐organizing in Kalundborg, Denmark have followed many paths, some with much success and some with very little. This article provides a historical view of the motivations and means for pursuing industrial symbiosis—defined to include physical exchanges of materials, energy, water, and by‐products among diversified clusters of firms. It finds that “uncovering” existing symbioses has led to more sustainable industrial development than attempts to design and build eco‐industrial parks incorporating physical exchanges. By examining 15 proposed projects brought to national and international attention by the U.S. President's Council on Sustainable Development beginning in the early 1990s, and contrasting these with another 12 projects observed to share more elements of self‐organization, recommendations are offered to stimulate the identification and uncovering of already existing “kernels” of symbiosis. In addition, policies and practices are suggested to identify early‐stage precursors of potentially larger symbioses that can be nurtured and developed further. The article concludes that environmentally and economically desirable symbiotic exchanges are all around us and now we must shift our gaze to find and foster them.     

“Micro-Film” In Photomicrography

Micro-File film (Eastman Kodak Co.) gave excellent results when used for photomicrography. A 35 mm. reflex camera attached to one tube of a binocular microscope provided a convenient means of recording cells of special interest in chromosome studies. Micro-File was found to give better contrast than Plus-X and required less processing time.