Development of an alternative ageing technique for blue shark (Prionace glauca) using the vertebra

Accurate determination of age is essential for the comprehensive assessment and management of exploited shark populations. Enhancement of growth bands is necessary to accurately and efficiently determine age. However, most traditional techniques do not describe an efficiency of a series of procedures and the detailed protocol for different‐sized sharks. We describe a simple and highly successful technique for ageing vertebrae of blue shark (Prionace glauca) that we refer to as “burn method”, derived from the “break and burn method” and “shadowing method”—a simple procedure requiring an alkaline treatment to clean the vertebral centra and a burning treatment to enhance growth band visualization. We described optimal times for sharks of precaudal length of 50, 100, 150, and 200 cm as 44.9, 88.7, 134.0, 183.5 s of alkaline treatment, and 6.8, 8.9, 10.2, and 11.5 min of burning treatment; both longer and shorter exposure times resulted in higher failed sample frequencies. Using our burn method, it is possible to do ageing a sample from a wide angle, with the reader able to obtain information on growth bands from different perspectives. To critique different technique efficiencies, the index of average percent error (IAPE) and mean coefficient of variation (CV) are compared for independent readers using the burn method and other techniques (silver nitrate impregnation and the unstained shadowing methods). The precision of the burn method (IAPE, 4.1%; CV, 5.7%) was similar to that of silver nitrate impregnation (IAPE, 5.8%; CV, 8.2%) and unstained shadowing method (IAPE, 8.3%; CV, 11.8%). For younger specimens, the IAPE and CV of the burn method were lower than those of the other techniques, but, compared with other ageing methods, precision decreased for older sharks. We demonstrate that the burn method to be accurate for age determination of blue sharks, especially for specimens with less than 10 bands, but recommend simultaneous use of other methods, such as thin sectioning (the most common for structure‐based ageing) and bomb carbon dating, to accurately determine the age of older individuals.     

Impact of scoring error and reproducibility RAPD data on RAPD based estimates of genetic distance

RAPD band reproducibility and scoring error were evaluated for RAPDs generated by 50 RAPD primers among ten snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes. Genetic distances based on different sets of RAPD bands were compared to evaluate the impact of scoring error, reproducibility, and differences in relative amplification strength on the reproducibility of RAPD based genetic distance estimates. The measured RAPD data scoring error was 2%. Reproducibility, expressed as the percentage of RAPD bands scored that are also scored in replicate data, was 76%. The results indicate that the probability of a scored RAPD band being scored in replicate data is strongly dependent on the uniformity of amplification conditions between experiments, as well as the relative amplification strength of the RAPD band. Significant improvement in the reproducibility of scored bands and some reduction in scoring error was achieved by reducing differences in reaction conditions between replicates. Observed primer variability for the reproducibility of scored RAPDs may also facilitate the selection of primers, resulting in dramatic improvements in the reproducibility of RAPD data used in germplasm studies. Variance of genetic distances across replicates due to sampling error was found to be more than six times greater than that due to scoring error for a set of 192 RAPD bands. Genetic distance matrices computed from the RAPD bands scored in replicated data and RAPD bands that failed to be scored in replicated data were not significantly different. Differences in the ethidium bromide staining intensity of RAPD bands were not associated with significant differences in resulting genetic distance matrices. The assumption of sampling error as the only source of error was sufficient to account for the observed variation in genetic distance estimates across independent sets of RAPD bands.     

Equivalence of the total constitutive heterochromatin content by an interchromosomal compensation in the C band sizes of chromosomes 1, 9, 16, and Y in Caucasian and Japanese individuals

A quantitative analysis of C bands by densitometric measurements in chromosomes 1, 9, 16, and Y was conducted in Caucasians and Japanese living in Brazil. Sixty normal unrelated subjects (30 males and 30 females) were studied in each racial group. Caucasians presented C bands of chromosomes 1, 9, and 16 larger than Japanese, but, on average, only the difference for C bands of chromosome 9 was statistically significant. In the Japanese, the C band sizes of chromosomes Y were, on average, significantly larger than in the Caucasians. The mean C band size of chromosome 9 and the sum of the three pairs were significantly larger in Caucasian than in Japanese males. The total values of constitutive heterochromatin, sigma (1qh,9qh,16qh,Yq12), did not show significant difference between Caucasian and Japanese males. The relative C band sizes of chromosomes 1, 9, and 16 were, on average, similar in Caucasians and Japanese. No sex difference was found in both racial groups. As regards the heteromorphism, only the values of C bands of chromosome 9 were, on average, significantly larger in Caucasians than in Japanese. Partial inversions were detected only among the Caucasians.     

湿地松林叶面积指数测算

对湿地松（Pinus elliotii）当年生和多年生两针一束、三针一束叶片的长度、宽度、厚度和重量分别进行量测,据此探讨不同类型叶片的叶形和比叶面积差异,并结合样地调查数据对中科院千烟洲试验站湿地松人工林的叶面积指数进行计算。结果表明：湿地松三针一束叶片合拢后横切面基本呈圆形,当年生叶和多年生叶的平均直径分别为1．688mm和1.706mm;两针一束叶片合拢后从统计学上讲横切面不是圆形,而是椭圆形,叶片厚度方向直径大于宽度方向（当年生叶厚度和宽度方向直径分别为1．580ram和1．422mm,多年生叶分别为1．568mm和1.410mm）,但如果把厚度和宽度方向直径的平均值近似成圆柱体直径计算时误差在3％以内;如果只用厚度或宽度方向直径代表平均直径计算结果会有2％。10％的误差;当年生叶和多年生叶、两针一束叶和三针一束叶之间比叶面积差别很大,计算的三种比叶面积（投影比叶面积、圆柱面比叶面积和比表面积）中,当年生叶的比叶面积明显大于多年生叶,三针一束叶片的投影比叶面积和比表面积都大于两针一束叶片,但圆柱面比叶面积恰好相反。湿地松林的叶面积指数若按投影叶面积算为3．61,按圆柱面的外表面算为5．12,按总表面积的一半算为4．52,比利用冠层分析仪测量的结果略大。     

Quantitative analysis of C-bands based on optical density profiles in human chromosomes

Summary A method of quantitative analysis of C segments in human chromosomes 1, 9, and 16 based on longitudinal densitometry has been developed. The way of fitting apparatus data to visual estimates is represented. Density curve parameters not dependent on stain intensity were used. The general C band length error is approx. 0.05 m. Heteromorphic chromosome 16 pairs have been investigated with this method. A significant difference (about 0.18 m) between C bands of the homologues has been detected in chromosome 16. It has been calculated that C bands can be distinguished if the mean difference between the length of the homologues is more than 15%.     

Qualitative and quantitative characterization of RAPD variation among snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) genotypes

Ten snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) genotypes were screened for polymorphism with 400 RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) primers. Polymorphic RAPDs were scored and classified into three categories based on ethidium bromide staining intensity. An average of 5.19 RAPD bands were scored per primer for the 364 primers that gave scorable amplification products. An average of 2.15 polymorphic RAPDs were detected per primer. The results show that primer screening may reduce the number of RAPD reactions required for the analysis of genetic relationships among snap-bean genotypes by over 60%. Based on the analysis of the distribution of RAPD amplification, the same number of polymorphic RAPDs were amplified from different genotypes for all RAPD band intensity levels. A comparison of RAPD band amplification frequency among genotypes for the three categories of bands classified by amplification strength revealed a measurable difference in the frequencies of RAPDs classified as faint (weakly amplifying) compared to RAPD bands classified as bold (strongly amplifying) indicating a possible scoring error due to the underscoring of faint bands. Correlation analysis showed that RAPD bands amplified by the same primer are not more closely correlated then RAPD bands amplified by different primers but are more highly correlated then expected by chance. Pairwise comparisons of RAPD bands indicate that the distribution of RAPD amplification among genotypes will be a useful criterion for establishing RAPD band identity. For the average pairwise comparison of genotypes, 50% of primers tested and 15.8% of all scored RAPDs detected polymorphism. Based on RAPD data Nei's average gene diversity at a locus was 0.158 based on all scorable RAPD bands and 0.388 if only polymorphic RAPD loci were considered. RAPD-derived 1 relationships among genotypes are reported for the ten genotypes included in this study. The data presented here demonstrate that many informative, polymorphic RAPDs can be found among snap bean cultivars. These RAPDs may be useful for the unique identification of bean varieties, the organization of bean germplasm, and applications of molecular markers to bean breeding.     

Homoplasy corrected estimation of genetic similarity from AFLP bands,and the effect of the number of bands on the precision of estimation

AFLP is a DNA fingerprinting technique, resulting in binary band presence–absence patterns, called profiles, with known or unknown band positions. We model AFLP as a sampling procedure of fragments, with lengths sampled from a distribution. Bands represent fragments of specific lengths. We focus on estimation of pairwise genetic similarity, defined as average fraction of common fragments, by AFLP. Usual estimators are Dice (D) or Jaccard coefficients. D overestimates genetic similarity, since identical bands in profile pairs may correspond to different fragments (homoplasy). Another complicating factor is the occurrence of different fragments of equal length within a profile, appearing as a single band, which we call collision. The bias of D increases with larger numbers of bands, and lower genetic similarity. We propose two homoplasy- and collision-corrected estimators of genetic similarity. The first is a modification of D, replacing band counts by estimated fragment counts. The second is a maximum likelihood estimator, only applicable if band positions are available. Properties of the estimators are studied by simulation. Standard errors and confidence intervals for the first are obtained by bootstrapping, and for the second by likelihood theory. The estimators are nearly unbiased, and have for most practical cases smaller standard error than D. The likelihood-based estimator generally gives the highest precision. The relationship between fragment counts and precision is studied using simulation. The usual range of band counts (50–100) appears nearly optimal. The methodology is illustrated using data from a phylogenetic study on lettuce.     

Further investigations concerning the applicability of laser analysis in quantitative histochemistry

Summary Further investigations on the applicability of the laser technique for qantitative purposes in histochemistry were conducted. Special attention has been paid to the relationship between the volume of the crater burnt out in the tissue by laser ray treatment and the photometric readings of the spectral bands. A statistical evalution of the measurements of crater volumes for quantitative histochemistry as well as determination of the error of the former method used and previously described (Kozik et al., 1970b) have been performed. Special agar standards containing known amounts of Pb(NO₃)₂ and appropriately prepared photographic plates were used. From the results obtained it appeared that the variances calculated for the differences between density of spectral bands for the Pb present in the investigated sample and the density of the respective band for the Ag present in the photographic plate fall in the range of between 14.1 and 19.7%, whereas the error of the method in which the density of spectral bands was related to the crater volumes covered a range from 3.45–7.7%.Based on the discussion of results the authors conclude that both methods of acP assay in histological slices by means of laser microanalysis may be successfully used.     

基于Sentinel-1和Sentinel-2A的西小山林场平均树高估测

森林资源调查对于我国森林生态系统可持续发展具有重要意义,森林平均高度是森林资源调查的主要结构参数,也是获取难度最大的关键参数之一。为探究联合主被动遥感技术在估测森林平均高度方面的潜力,本研究以吉林省临江市西小山林场为研究区,利用Sentinel-1 SAR和Sentinel-2A数据,通过提取Sentinel-1的2个后向散射系数、8个纹理信息,以及Sentinel-2A的10个光谱波段及其纹理信息和11个植被指数,采用多元线性回归方法分别建立基于上述变量以及融合4类变量的5组平均树高估算模型,并评估各变量对反演精度的影响。结果表明: 单一数据源变量中,基于Sentinel-2A光谱波段提取的纹理信息建模效果较好,能够作为估算森林平均高度的有效数据;融合4类变量的森林平均高度估算模型最优,R²达0.56、留一交叉验证均方根误差为2.92 m、相对留一交叉验证均方根误差为21.5%。基于Sentinel-1与Sentinel-2A特征变量的平均树高模型能够提高森林高度的估算精度,可用于区域森林平均高度估测和制图。     

不同干旱条件下夏玉米全生育期冠层吸收光合有效辐射比的高光谱遥感反演

冠层吸收光合有效辐射比(fAPAR)是植被生产力遥感模型的重要参数.但关于不同干旱条件下作物全生育期的fAPAR遥感反演研究仍未见报道.本研究利用2015年夏玉米5个灌水处理模拟试验的高光谱反射率和fAPAR观测资料,分析了不同干旱条件下夏玉米关键生育期fAPAR和高光谱反射率变化特征,探讨了fAPAR与反射率、一阶导数光谱反射率和植被指数的关系.结果表明: 轻度水分胁迫和充分供水条件下,fAPAR较高;重度水分胁迫和重度持续干旱条件下,fAPAR较低.冠层可见光、近红外光和短波红外光区的反射率与fAPAR分别呈负相关、正相关和负相关关系.fAPAR与可见光和短波红外光区的383、680和1980 nm附近的反射率的相关性最强,相关系数均达-0.87.一阶导数光谱反射率与fAPAR相关性强且稳定的波段为580、720和1546 nm,相关系数分别为-0.91、0.89和0.88. 9个常用植被指数与fAPAR呈线性或对数关系,其中,增强型植被指数、复归一化植被指数、土壤调节植被指数和修正的土壤调节植被指数与fAPAR的关系模型最好,决定系数(R²)均在0.88以上,平均相对误差分别为16.6%、16.6%、16.7%和16.2%;基于一阶导数光谱反射率与fAPAR的对数关系在(720±5) nm波段处的模拟效果较好,R²达0.86;直接选择反射率数据估算fAPAR的效果较差,R²最高为0.81.研究结果可为fAPAR的准确反演及评估作物干旱状况提供支撑.     

A feasibility study of the use of random amplified polymorphic DNA in the population genetics and systematics of grasshoppers.

Single, short primers of arbitrary nucleotide sequence were used in polymerase chain reactions to amplify regions of DNA isolated from several melanopline and oedipodine grasshoppers collected from local Saskatchewan populations. This represents one of the first applications of the method, called randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (or RAPD), to natural populations. Twenty-four different oligonucleotide primers, nine nucleotides in length, yielded clear and reproducible bands corresponding to amplified products and separable by agarose gel electrophoresis. On average, about 8.1 bands (range 0-17) were obtained per primer per individual. The mean percent similarity between band profiles of conspecific individuals was 51.2%, whereas the mean value for individuals representing different species or genera was 35.0%. Clearly, greater numbers of insects and primers will be required to achieve a satisfactory level of phylogenetic resolution. Given RAPDs technical advantages and ease of execution, however, this should not be problematic to the molecular systematist.     

Types and frequencies of Q-variant chromosomes in a Japanese population

Summary The types of Q-variant bands were determined by a combination of numerical designations setting five levels for both the size of bands and the intensity of fluorescence. This scoring system was used in a study of the frequencies of Q variants in 400 Japanese individuals: variant bands were observed in seven specific autosome pairs of Nos. 3,4,13,14,15,21, and 22. The number of variants per individual ranged from 0 to 8, and the mean was 3.83±1.86. The incidence of Q variants according to the types of variant bands was determined in specific chromosomes.A low frequency of No. 3 chromosome variants and a high frequency of a long Y in males seems to be characteristic for Japanese populations.Variation in the length of the long arm of Y (Yq) was analyzed in a total of 157 men. The relative length of Yq, which was determined by a ratio of Yq/21q, ranged from 0.98 to 2.27, with an average of 1.56±0.25. The length of pale band Yq11 was relatively constant between individuals, with an average of 0.64±0.08. Therefore, it was clear that the variation in the Yq length was the result mainly of a variation in the length of the brilliant band Yq12. However, a slight tendency for the length of band Yq11 to increase in proportionally to the total length of the Yq was revealed. In this study special consideration was paid to the reliable analysis of Q-band heteromorphism, and the factors or obstacles preventing such analysis have been discussed briefly.     

Intraoperative squash cytology: accuracy and impact on immediate surgical management of central nervous system tumours

N. Krishnani, N. Kumari, S. Behari, C. Rana and P. Gupta
Intraoperative squash cytology: diagnostic accuracy and its impact on immediate surgical management of central nervous system tumours Objective: To assess the diagnostic accuracy of squash cytology, reasons for deferment, disagreement and partial agreement, and assess its impact on immediate surgical management of central nervous system tumours. Study design: All cases of squash cytology received from January 2007 to July 2010 were reviewed and correlated with final histopathological diagnoses. Deferments, disagreements and partial disagreements were reviewed to look for possible reasons. The impact of disagreements and partial agreements on immediate surgical management was evaluated in consultation with neurosurgeons. Results: Overall accuracy (including complete and partial agreement) for squash smear diagnosis of 334 cases was 94.9% while complete agreement was 79.9%, excluding deferred cases. Disagreement was seen in 17 cases and 31 cases were deferred for final histopathology diagnosis. Good correlation was seen in astrocytoma, meningioma, schwannoma, medulloblastoma, pituitary adenoma and metastatic carcinoma, whereas poor correlation was seen in oligodendroglioma, ependymoma and lymphoma. Among 17 cases with disagreement and 50 cases with partial agreement, an adverse impact on immediate surgical management was found in six (35.3%) cases and one (2.0%) case, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of squash for diagnosis of neoplastic lesions were 98.7% and 87.5%, respectively. Conclusion: Squash cytology is a rapid, reliable, simple technique for intraoperative consultation in neurosurgical practice with high overall accuracy. Causes causing an adverse impact on surgical management were rare and potential avoidable reasons for them were identified.     

Deciphering genetic diversity analysis of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) using RAPD and ISSR markers

The existence of genetic diversity in Crocus sativus has globally remained a mystery till date. The study investigated PCR based DNA amplification profile of saffron using ISSR and RAPD based primers. A total of 38 amplicons were generated by ISSR primers in the range from 7 to 12 with an average of 9.50 bands per primer. 20 bands were found to be polymorphic and 18 were monomorphic with an average percentage of polymorphism as 52.48%. RAPD based amplification revealed a total 161 amplicons, 107 as polymorphic and 54 as monomorphic with an average percentage of polymorphism as 66.44%. Cumulative results of RAPD and ISSR demonstrated that Nei-Li’s similarity index ranged between 0.70 and 0.97. The results of AMOVA has revealed 9% of variance among populations and 91% of variance within populations, Φ PT was found as 0.089, which indicates existence of genetic differences though limited. In conclusion, the results indicate that saffron accessions are minimally genetically differentiated, which could be capitalized in future breeding programmes to ameliorate this precious crop.     

剑尾鱼近交系遗传纯度的RAPD分析

目的　分析近交系剑尾鱼 (Xiphophorushelleri)的遗传纯度 ,以指导剑尾鱼实验动物化的培育工作。方法　应用经过筛选的 2 9条随机引物对剑尾鱼的第 19代近交系 12尾剑尾鱼个体基因组DNA进行RAPD扩增 ,计算近交系个体间的相似系数及遗传距离。结果　筛选的 2 9条引物共扩增出 30 6条带 ,扩增片段的大小在 0 2 - 3kb之间。其中多态性带 2 9条 ,多态性带频率在 0～ 5 0 0 0 %之间 ,平均为 9 48%。近交系剑尾鱼不同个体拥有相同条带的比率较高。计算得到近交系的平均相似系数 (S)为 0 9839(0 973～ 0 997) ,平均等位基因频率 ( q)为 0 8731,最低平均杂合率 ( H)为 0 12 6 9。 结论　剑尾鱼第 19代近交系有较高的遗传纯合度。     

A chromosomal duplication map of malformations: regions of suspected haplo- and triplolethality--and tolerance of segmental aneuploidy--in humans.

The distribution of simple autosomal duplications associated with congenital malformations has been analyzed by means of data contained in the Human Cytogenetics Database. For each of the 47 malformations, the frequency of duplication of a given chromosome band associated with the malformation was compared with the overall frequency of duplication of that band recorded in the database. In total, there were 143 malformation-associated chromosomal regions (MACR); 21 of these contained at least one band with a highly significant (P<.001) association. The average number of bands per MACR was 3.1. Eight bands, representing 2.1% of haploid autosomal length, were not involved in any duplication, and we suggest that these are potentially triplolethal. This compares with 31 bands, representing 11% of haploid autosomal length, that were identified in the previously reported deletion map and that were not involved in any deletion and are potentially haplolethal. In both cases, approximately half of these bands are pericentromeric. The longest duplication involves 4.3% of haploid autosomal length, and the longest deletion involves 2.7%.     

Technical note: The effect of midshaft location on the error ranges of femoral and tibial cross‐sectional parameters

In comparing long‐bone cross‐sectional geometric properties between individuals, percentages of bone length are often used to identify equivalent locations along the diaphysis. In fragmentary specimens where bone lengths cannot be measured, however, these locations must be estimated more indirectly. In this study, we examine the effect of inaccurately located femoral and tibial midshafts on estimation of geometric properties. The error ranges were compared on 30 femora and tibiae from the Eneolithic and Bronze Age. Cross‐sections were obtained at each 1% interval from 60 to 40% of length using CT scans. Five percent of deviation from midshaft properties was used as the maximum acceptable error. Reliability was expressed by mean percentage differences, standard deviation of percentage differences, mean percentage absolute differences, limits of agreement, and mean accuracy range (MAR) (range within which mean deviation from true midshaft values was less than 5%). On average, tibial cortical area and femoral second moments of area are the least sensitive to positioning error, with mean accuracy ranges wide enough for practical application in fragmentary specimens (MAR = 40–130 mm). In contrast, tibial second moments of area are the most sensitive to error in midshaft location (MAR = 14–20 mm). Individuals present significant variation in morphology and thus in error ranges for different properties. For highly damaged fossil femora and tibiae we recommend carrying out additional tests to better establish specific errors associated with uncertain length estimates. Am J Phys Anthropol 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

High-Pass Filter Characteristics of the Baroreflex – A Comparison of Frequency Domain and Pharmacological Methods

Pharmacological methods to assess baroreflex sensitivity evoke supra-physiological blood pressure changes whereas computational methods use spontaneous fluctuations of blood pressure. The relationships among the different baroreflex assessment methods are still not fully understood. Although strong advocates for each technique exist, the differences between these methods need further clarification. Understanding the differences between pharmacological and spontaneous baroreflex methods could provide important insight into the baroreflex physiology. We compared the modified Oxford baroreflex gain and the transfer function modulus between spontaneous RR interval and blood pressure fluctuations in 18 healthy subjects (age: 39±10 yrs., BMI: 26±4.9). The transfer function was calculated over the low-frequency range of the RR interval and systolic blood pressure oscillations during random-frequency paced breathing. The average modified Oxford baroreflex gain was lower than the average transfer function modulus (15.7±9.2 ms/mmHg vs. 19.4±10.5 ms/mmHg, P<0.05). The difference between the two baroreflex measures within the individual subjects comprised a systematic difference (relative mean difference: 20.7%) and a random variance (typical error: 3.9 ms/mmHg). The transfer function modulus gradually increased with the frequency within the low-frequency range (LF), on average from 10.4±7.3 ms/mmHg to 21.2±9.8 ms/mmHg across subjects. Narrowing the zone of interest within the LF band produced a decrease in both the systematic difference (relative mean difference: 0.5%) and the random variance (typical error: 2.1 ms/mmHg) between the modified Oxford gain and the transfer function modulus. Our data suggest that the frequency dependent increase in low-frequency transfer function modulus between RR interval and blood pressure fluctuations contributes to both the systematic difference (bias) and the random variance (error) between the pharmacological and transfer function baroreflex measures. This finding suggests that both methodological and physiological factors underlie the observed disagreement between the pharmacological and the transfer function method. Thus both baroreflex measures contribute complementary information and can be considered valid methods for baroreflex sensitivity assessment.     

Protein classification with Extended-Sequence Coding by sliding window

A large number of unclassified sequences is still found in public databases, which suggests that there is still need for new investigations in the area. In this contribution, we present a methodology based on Artificial Neural Networks for protein functional classification. A new protein coding scheme, called here Extended-Sequence Coding by Sliding Windows, is presented with the goal of overcoming some of the difficulties of the well method Sequence Coding by Sliding Window. The new protein coding scheme uses more than one sliding window length with a weight factor that is proportional to the window length, avoiding the ambiguity problem without ignoring the identity of small subsequences Accuracy for Sequence Coding by Sliding Windows ranged from 60.1 to 77.7 percent for the first bacterium protein set and from 61.9 to 76.7 percent for the second one, whereas the accuracy for the proposed Extended-Sequence Coding by Sliding Windows scheme ranged from 70.7 to 97.1 percent for the first bacterium protein set and from 61.1 to 93.3 percent for the second one. Additionally, protein sequences classified inconsistently by the Artificial Neural Networks were analyzed by CD-Search revealing that there are some disagreement in public repositories, calling the attention for the relevant issue of error propagation in annotated databases due the incorrect transferred annotations.